Endocrinology

Endocrinology deals with hormone-related disorders and metabolic conditions affecting the thyroid, adrenal, pituitary, and parathyroid glands.

Addison's Disease (primary adrenal insufficiency, cortisol replacement)
Adrenal Fatigue (HPA Axis Dysfunction) (cortisol diurnal rhythm, salivary testing, adaptogens, sleep + stress recovery)
Cushing's Syndrome (hypercortisolism, dexamethasone suppression test)
Diabetes Mellitus (Type 1, Type 2, insulin therapy, HbA1c targets)
Diabetes Insipidus (central vs nephrogenic, water deprivation test, desmopressin)
Graves' Disease (autoimmune hyperthyroidism, TSI/TRAb, radioactive iodine, thyroid eye disease, teprotumumab)
Hashimoto's Thyroiditis (autoimmune hypothyroidism, anti-TPO, levothyroxine, selenium, root-cause approaches)
Hyperparathyroidism (primary/secondary/tertiary, calcium-PTH axis, calcimimetics)
Insulin Resistance (the upstream driver, fasting insulin, HOMA-IR, CGM, reversal framework)
Metabolic Syndrome (ATP III/IDF criteria, insulin resistance, cardiovascular risk)
Obesity (BMI classification, GLP-1 agonists, bariatric surgery)
Pheochromocytoma (catecholamine excess, metanephrines, alpha-blockade, MEN2/VHL)
PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome) (Rotterdam criteria, insulin resistance driver, metformin/inositol, fertility)
- PCOS Deep-Dive (older)
Thyroid Disorders (hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's)

Research Papers
Connections
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Key Research Papers

Foundational and recent peer-reviewed publications across the major endocrinology subspecialties — diabetes, thyroid, adrenal, pituitary, reproductive endocrinology, and metabolic syndrome. Each citation links to the full text via DOI.

The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The Effect of Intensive Treatment of Diabetes on the Development and Progression of Long-Term Complications in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (DCCT). New England Journal of Medicine. 1993;329(14):977–986.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive Blood-Glucose Control with Sulphonylureas or Insulin Compared with Conventional Treatment and Risk of Complications in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352(9131):837–853.
Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, et al. Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes (EMPA-REG OUTCOME). New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373(22):2117–2128.
Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (LEADER). New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;375(4):311–322.
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. Standards of Care in Diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(Suppl 1):S1–S321.
Jonklaas J, Bianco AC, Bauer AJ, et al. Guidelines for the Treatment of Hypothyroidism (American Thyroid Association). Thyroid. 2014;24(12):1670–1751.
Bornstein SR, Allolio B, Arlt W, et al. Diagnosis and Treatment of Primary Adrenal Insufficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2016;101(2):364–389.
Nieman LK, Biller BMK, Findling JW, et al. The Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2008;93(5):1526–1540.
Stewart PM, Biller BMK, Marelli C, Gunnarsson C, Ryan MP, Johannsson G. Exploring Inpatient Hospitalizations and Morbidity in Patients with Adrenal Insufficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2016;101(12):4843–4850.
Reaven GM. Banting Lecture 1988. Role of Insulin Resistance in Human Disease. Diabetes. 1988;37(12):1595–1607.
Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC. Homeostasis Model Assessment: Insulin Resistance and Beta-Cell Function from Fasting Plasma Glucose and Insulin Concentrations in Man (HOMA-IR). Diabetologia. 1985;28(7):412–419.
Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group. Effects of Intensive Glucose Lowering in Type 2 Diabetes (ACCORD). New England Journal of Medicine. 2008;358(24):2545–2559.
Rotterdam ESHRE/ASRM-Sponsored PCOS Consensus Workshop Group. Revised 2003 Consensus on Diagnostic Criteria and Long-Term Health Risks Related to Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS). Human Reproduction. 2004;19(1):41–47.
Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016;26(10):1343–1421.
Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Anker SD, et al. Effect of Finerenone on Chronic Kidney Disease Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (FIDELIO-DKD). New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;383(23):2219–2229.
Frías JP, Davies MJ, Rosenstock J, et al. Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2). New England Journal of Medicine. 2021;385(6):503–515.