Endocrinology

Endocrinology deals with hormone-related disorders and metabolic conditions affecting the thyroid, adrenal, pituitary, and parathyroid glands.

• Acromegaly (excess growth hormone from pituitary tumor, IGF-1 elevation, acral enlargement)
• Addison's Disease (primary adrenal insufficiency, cortisol replacement)
• Adrenal Fatigue (HPA Axis Dysfunction) (cortisol diurnal rhythm, salivary testing, adaptogens, sleep + stress recovery)
• Adrenal Incidentaloma (incidentally discovered adrenal mass, hormone workup, malignancy risk assessment)
• Adrenal Insufficiency (primary and secondary causes, cortisol deficiency, steroid replacement)
• Carcinoid Tumor (neuroendocrine tumor, serotonin excess, carcinoid syndrome, octreotide)
• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (21-hydroxylase deficiency, cortisol/androgen imbalance, neonatal screening)
• Cushing's Syndrome (hypercortisolism, dexamethasone suppression test)
• Diabetes Mellitus (Type 1, Type 2, insulin therapy, HbA1c targets)
  • Type 1 vs Type 2 vs LADA & MODY
  • A1c, Fructosamine & Glycation Markers
  • CGM & Time-in-Range
  • Insulin Types & Dosing Strategies
  • Cardio-Renal Protection: SGLT2 & GLP-1
  • Remission & Reversal Strategies
  • Complications: Retinopathy, Nephropathy, Neuropathy
  • Hypoglycemia Awareness & Prevention
• Diabetes Insipidus (central vs nephrogenic, water deprivation test, desmopressin)
• Gestational Diabetes (pregnancy-induced glucose intolerance, OGTT screening, fetal macrosomia risk)
• Glucagonoma (Pancreatic Alpha-Cell Tumor) (excess glucagon, necrolytic migratory erythema, hyperglycemia)
• Goiter (thyroid enlargement, iodine deficiency, toxic multinodular goiter, substernal goiter, TI-RADS)
• Graves' Disease (autoimmune hyperthyroidism, TSI/TRAb, radioactive iodine, thyroid eye disease, teprotumumab)
• Hashimoto's Thyroiditis (autoimmune hypothyroidism, anti-TPO, levothyroxine, selenium, root-cause approaches)
  • TPO & TgAb Antibodies Explained
  • TSH, T4, T3 Optimal Ranges
  • Levothyroxine vs NDT vs T3
  • AIP & Gluten Elimination
  • Selenium, Zinc, Iron, Iodine
  • Reverse T3 & Low T3 Syndrome
  • Pregnancy & Hashimoto's
  • Hashimoto's, POTS & MCAS Overlap
• Hyperparathyroidism (primary/secondary/tertiary, calcium-PTH axis, calcimimetics)
• Hypoparathyroidism (low PTH, hypocalcemia, tetany, calcitriol replacement)
• Hypopituitarism (pituitary hormone deficiency, panhypopituitarism, hormone replacement)
• Insulinoma (Pancreatic Beta-Cell Tumor) (fasting hypoglycemia, Whipple's triad, surgical resection)
• Insulin Resistance (the upstream driver, fasting insulin, HOMA-IR, CGM, reversal framework)
  • Fasting Insulin & HOMA-IR
  • CGM for Non-Diabetics
  • Reversal: Diet & Fasting
  • Insulin Resistance & PCOS
  • Metabolic Syndrome & CV Risk
  • NAFLD / MASLD Connection
  • Exercise & Muscle Sensitivity
  • Metformin, Berberine & GLP-1s
• Male Hypogonadism (low testosterone, primary vs secondary, testosterone replacement therapy)
• Metabolic Syndrome (ATP III/IDF criteria, insulin resistance, cardiovascular risk)
• Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN overview) (hereditary multi-gland tumor syndromes, MEN1/MEN2, genetic testing)
• Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 (MEN1) (parathyroid, pituitary, pancreatic tumors, MEN1 gene)
• Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2 (MEN2) (MTC, pheochromocytoma, RET proto-oncogene, prophylactic thyroidectomy)
• Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 — Wermer Syndrome (3 P's: parathyroid/pituitary/pancreas, Wermer eponym)
• Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2 — Sipple Syndrome (MTC + pheochromocytoma + parathyroid, Sipple eponym)
• Obesity (BMI classification, GLP-1 agonists, bariatric surgery)
• Pheochromocytoma (catecholamine excess, metanephrines, alpha-blockade, MEN2/VHL)
• PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome) (Rotterdam criteria, insulin resistance driver, metformin/inositol, fertility)
  • PCOS Deep-Dive (older)
• Prediabetes (impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, diabetes prevention)
• Premature Ovarian Insufficiency (early ovarian failure, FMR1 premutation, autoimmune oophoritis, HRT in young women, fertility options)
• Primary Hyperaldosteronism (Conn's syndrome, aldosterone excess, hypertension, adrenal adenoma)
• Primary Hyperparathyroidism (autonomous PTH excess, hypercalcemia, nephrolithiasis, parathyroidectomy)
• Prolactinoma (benign prolactin-secreting pituitary adenoma, galactorrhea, dopamine agonists)
• Secondary Hyperparathyroidism (reactive PTH elevation from CKD or vitamin D deficiency)
• SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone) (hyponatremia, euvolemic, fluid restriction, vaptans)
• Thyroid Cancer (papillary, follicular, medullary, anaplastic subtypes, RAI ablation)
• Thyroid Disorders (hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's)
• Thyroid Storm (life-threatening thyrotoxicosis, Burch-Wartofsky score, PTU + beta-blockade)
• Type 1 Diabetes (autoimmune beta-cell destruction, insulin-dependent, closed-loop pump therapy)
• Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome (Gastrinoma) (pancreatic/duodenal gastrinoma, severe peptic ulcers, PPI therapy)

Table of Contents

• Research Papers
• Connections
• Featured Videos

Key Research Papers

Foundational and recent peer-reviewed publications across the major endocrinology subspecialties — diabetes, thyroid, adrenal, pituitary, reproductive endocrinology, and metabolic syndrome. Each citation links to the full text via DOI.

1. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The Effect of Intensive Treatment of Diabetes on the Development and Progression of Long-Term Complications in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (DCCT). New England Journal of Medicine. 1993;329(14):977–986.
2. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive Blood-Glucose Control with Sulphonylureas or Insulin Compared with Conventional Treatment and Risk of Complications in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352(9131):837–853.
3. Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, et al. Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes (EMPA-REG OUTCOME). New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373(22):2117–2128.
4. Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (LEADER). New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;375(4):311–322.
5. American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. Standards of Care in Diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(Suppl 1):S1–S321.
6. Jonklaas J, Bianco AC, Bauer AJ, et al. Guidelines for the Treatment of Hypothyroidism (American Thyroid Association). Thyroid. 2014;24(12):1670–1751.
7. Bornstein SR, Allolio B, Arlt W, et al. Diagnosis and Treatment of Primary Adrenal Insufficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2016;101(2):364–389.
8. Nieman LK, Biller BMK, Findling JW, et al. The Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2008;93(5):1526–1540.
9. Stewart PM, Biller BMK, Marelli C, Gunnarsson C, Ryan MP, Johannsson G. Exploring Inpatient Hospitalizations and Morbidity in Patients with Adrenal Insufficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2016;101(12):4843–4850.
10. Reaven GM. Banting Lecture 1988. Role of Insulin Resistance in Human Disease. Diabetes. 1988;37(12):1595–1607.
11. Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC. Homeostasis Model Assessment: Insulin Resistance and Beta-Cell Function from Fasting Plasma Glucose and Insulin Concentrations in Man (HOMA-IR). Diabetologia. 1985;28(7):412–419.
12. Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group. Effects of Intensive Glucose Lowering in Type 2 Diabetes (ACCORD). New England Journal of Medicine. 2008;358(24):2545–2559.
13. Rotterdam ESHRE/ASRM-Sponsored PCOS Consensus Workshop Group. Revised 2003 Consensus on Diagnostic Criteria and Long-Term Health Risks Related to Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS). Human Reproduction. 2004;19(1):41–47.
14. Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016;26(10):1343–1421.
15. Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Anker SD, et al. Effect of Finerenone on Chronic Kidney Disease Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (FIDELIO-DKD). New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;383(23):2219–2229.
16. Frías JP, Davies MJ, Rosenstock J, et al. Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2). New England Journal of Medicine. 2021;385(6):503–515.

Live PubMed Searches

Live PubMed queries that update as new papers are indexed.

1. PubMed: endocrine disease review
2. PubMed: diabetes mellitus type 2
3. PubMed: thyroid disease
4. PubMed: adrenal insufficiency
5. PubMed: Cushing syndrome
6. PubMed: hyperparathyroidism
7. PubMed: pheochromocytoma
8. PubMed: polycystic ovary syndrome
9. PubMed: metabolic syndrome
10. PubMed: obesity endocrinology
11. PubMed: pituitary disorders
12. PubMed: insulin resistance

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Connections

• Endocrinology Index
• Diabetes
• Insulin Resistance
• Metabolic Syndrome
• Obesity
• Thyroid Disorders
• Hashimoto's Thyroiditis
• Graves' Disease
• Hypothyroidism
• Hyperthyroidism
• Lab Tests
• Vitamin D
• Magnesium
• Chromium

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