Endocrinology

Endocrinology — scientific infographic poster

Conditions

🖐️Acromegaly 🔋Addison's Disease 😴Adrenal Fatigue (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) Axis Dysfunction) 🔍Adrenal Incidentaloma 🪫Adrenal Insufficiency 🌺Carcinoid Tumor 👶Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia 🌕Cushing's Syndrome 💉Diabetes Mellitus 🍩Type 2 Diabetes 💧Diabetes Insipidus 🤰Gestational Diabetes 🍯Glucagonoma (Pancreatic Alpha-Cell Tumor) 🧣Goiter 👁️Graves' Disease 👕Gynecomastia 🦋Hashimoto's Thyroiditis 🦴Hyperparathyroidism 🥛Hypoparathyroidism 🧠Hypopituitarism 📉Insulinoma (Pancreatic Beta-Cell Tumor) 🔒Insulin Resistance ♂️Male Hypogonadism 📏Metabolic Syndrome 🧬Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN overview) 1️⃣Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 (MEN1) 2️⃣Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2 (MEN2) ⚖️Obesity ⚡Pheochromocytoma 🕸️Paraganglioma 🥚Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) ⚠️Prediabetes ⏳Premature Ovarian Insufficiency 🧂Primary Hyperaldosteronism 🪨Primary Hyperparathyroidism 🍼Prolactinoma ☀️Secondary Hyperparathyroidism 🐢Subclinical Hypothyroidism 🌊SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone) 🎗️Thyroid Cancer 🌡️Thyroid Disorders 🫐Thyroid Nodules 🌪️Thyroid Storm 🩸Type 1 Diabetes 🔥Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome (Gastrinoma)

Deep dives — Diabetes Mellitus: Type 1 vs Type 2 vs LADA & MODY · hemoglobin A1c, Fructosamine & Glycation Markers · CGM & Time-in-Range · Insulin Types & Dosing Strategies · Cardio-Renal Protection: sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) & glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) · Remission & Reversal Strategies · Complications: Retinopathy, Nephropathy, Neuropathy · Hypoglycemia Awareness & Prevention

Deep dives — Hashimoto's Thyroiditis: TPO & TgAb Antibodies Explained · thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), T4, T3 Optimal Ranges · Levothyroxine vs NDT vs T3 · AIP & Gluten Elimination · Selenium, Zinc, Iron, Iodine · Reverse T3 & Low T3 Syndrome · Pregnancy & Hashimoto's · Hashimoto's, postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS) & mast cell activation syndrome (MCAS) Overlap

Deep dives — Insulin Resistance: Fasting Insulin & homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) · CGM for Non-Diabetics · Reversal: Diet & Fasting · Insulin Resistance & polycystic ovary syndrome · Metabolic Syndrome & CV Risk · non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) / metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) Connection · Exercise & Muscle Sensitivity · Metformin, Berberine & glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1s)

Endocrinology deals with hormone-related disorders and metabolic conditions affecting the thyroid, adrenal, pituitary, and parathyroid glands.

💉 Interactive Visualization glucagon-like peptide-1 & Incretins — fire the gut hormone behind the new weight-loss drugs Eat a meal and watch your gut fire glucagon-like peptide-1 at the pancreas, brain and stomach at once — then see how Ozempic-style drugs resist the enzyme that destroys it in two minutes. Launch → ♨️ Interactive Visualization Brown Fat — burn calories as heat Watch brown-fat mitochondria leak their proton gradient through UCP1 to make pure heat instead of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) — the uncoupling trick cold switches on, and the dangerous one a banned diet drug forced. Launch → ♀️ Interactive Visualization The Menstrual Cycle — run the 28-day hormone loop Run the loop of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estrogen and progesterone — watch a follicle ripen, the luteinizing hormone surge burst the egg, and the lining build and shed — then see how the pill switches the loop off. Launch → 🤱 Interactive Visualization Lactation & Let-Down — make milk and release it Watch a baby's suckling release two hormones — prolactin to make the milk and oxytocin to squeeze it down in the let-down reflex — then add stress and see the adrenaline shut the let-down off. Launch →

Key Research Papers

Foundational and recent peer-reviewed publications across the major endocrinology subspecialties — diabetes, thyroid, adrenal, pituitary, reproductive endocrinology, and metabolic syndrome. Each citation links to the full text via DOI.

  1. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The Effect of Intensive Treatment of Diabetes on the Development and Progression of Long-Term Complications in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (DCCT). New England Journal of Medicine. 1993;329(14):977–986. — doi:10.1056/NEJM199309303291401
  2. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive Blood-Glucose Control with Sulphonylureas or Insulin Compared with Conventional Treatment and Risk of Complications in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352(9131):837–853. — doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07019-6
  3. Zinman B, Wanner C, Lachin JM, et al. Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes (EMPA-REG OUTCOME). New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;373(22):2117–2128. — doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1504720
  4. Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (LEADER). New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;375(4):311–322. — doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1603827
  5. American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. Standards of Care in Diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(Suppl 1):S1–S321. — doi:10.2337/dc24-Sint
  6. Jonklaas J, Bianco AC, Bauer AJ, et al. Guidelines for the Treatment of Hypothyroidism (American Thyroid Association). Thyroid. 2014;24(12):1670–1751. — doi:10.1089/thy.2014.0028
  7. Bornstein SR, Allolio B, Arlt W, et al. Diagnosis and Treatment of Primary Adrenal Insufficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2016;101(2):364–389. — doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1710
  8. Nieman LK, Biller BMK, Findling JW, et al. The Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2008;93(5):1526–1540. — doi:10.1210/jc.2008-0125
  9. Stewart PM, Biller BMK, Marelli C, Gunnarsson C, Ryan MP, Johannsson G. Exploring Inpatient Hospitalizations and Morbidity in Patients with Adrenal Insufficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2016;101(12):4843–4850. — doi:10.1210/jc.2016-2221
  10. Reaven GM. Banting Lecture 1988. Role of Insulin Resistance in Human Disease. Diabetes. 1988;37(12):1595–1607. — doi:10.2337/diab.37.12.1595
  11. Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC. Homeostasis Model Assessment: Insulin Resistance and Beta-Cell Function from Fasting Plasma Glucose and Insulin Concentrations in Man (HOMA-IR). Diabetologia. 1985;28(7):412–419. — doi:10.1007/BF00280883
  12. Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group. Effects of Intensive Glucose Lowering in Type 2 Diabetes (ACCORD). New England Journal of Medicine. 2008;358(24):2545–2559. — doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0802743
  13. Rotterdam ESHRE/ASRM-Sponsored PCOS Consensus Workshop Group. Revised 2003 Consensus on Diagnostic Criteria and Long-Term Health Risks Related to Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS). Human Reproduction. 2004;19(1):41–47. — doi:10.1093/humrep/deh098
  14. Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016;26(10):1343–1421. — doi:10.1089/thy.2016.0229
  15. Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Anker SD, et al. Effect of Finerenone on Chronic Kidney Disease Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (FIDELIO-DKD). New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;383(23):2219–2229. — doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2025845
  16. Frías JP, Davies MJ, Rosenstock J, et al. Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2). New England Journal of Medicine. 2021;385(6):503–515. — doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2107519

PubMed Topic Searches

Live PubMed queries that update as new papers are indexed.

  1. PubMed: endocrine disease review
  2. PubMed: diabetes mellitus type 2
  3. PubMed: thyroid disease
  4. PubMed: adrenal insufficiency
  5. PubMed: Cushing syndrome
  6. PubMed: hyperparathyroidism
  7. PubMed: pheochromocytoma
  8. PubMed: polycystic ovary syndrome
  9. PubMed: metabolic syndrome
  10. PubMed: obesity endocrinology
  11. PubMed: pituitary disorders
  12. PubMed: insulin resistance

Connections

All Endocrinology Articles A–Z

Every article in this specialty, listed alphabetically.