Gallbladder Cancer

Gallbladder cancer is the most common malignancy of the biliary tract — a deceptively hidden organ that rarely announces its transformation until the disease is advanced. With over 60% of patients diagnosed at an unresectable stage and a five-year overall survival below 20%, it stands among the most lethal gastrointestinal cancers. Yet early-stage gallbladder cancers discovered incidentally at cholecystectomy carry an excellent prognosis when managed correctly — making pathological examination of every removed gallbladder a life-saving practice. The approval of durvalumab plus gemcitabine and cisplatin in 2022 opened a new first-line option for advanced disease, and molecular profiling is identifying additional targets including HER2 and FGFR.

Table of Contents

  1. What is Gallbladder Cancer?
  2. Epidemiology and Global Incidence
  3. Risk Factors and Carcinogenesis
  4. Molecular Pathology: HER2, FGFR, and Beyond
  5. Clinical Presentation
  6. Staging and Resectability Assessment
  7. Surgical Treatment: From Incidental to Radical Resection
  8. Systemic Therapy: Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy
  9. Targeted Therapy and Biomarker-Driven Treatment
  10. Biliary Drainage and Supportive Care
  11. Key Research Papers
  12. PubMed Topic Searches
  13. Connections
  14. Featured Videos

1. What is Gallbladder Cancer?

The gallbladder is a small pear-shaped sac tucked beneath the right lobe of the liver, functioning as a reservoir for bile produced by the liver. Its inner surface is lined with a single layer of columnar epithelial cells. Gallbladder cancer (GBC) arises when these epithelial cells undergo malignant transformation, with adenocarcinoma accounting for more than 90% of cases. Less common histological variants include papillary adenocarcinoma (better prognosis), mucinous adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and rarely neuroendocrine carcinoma.

The gallbladder's anatomical position — nestled directly against hepatic segments IVb and V, with immediate proximity to the cystic artery, hepatic artery, and portal vein — means that even modest local tumor growth can involve critical vascular structures or the liver parenchyma, rapidly rendering the disease unresectable. The lymphatic drainage flows to the cystic duct node (Calot's triangle), then to the periportal, hepatoduodenal ligament, and celiac nodes, providing multiple routes of regional spread.

A unique and clinically important characteristic of gallbladder cancer is the frequency of incidental discovery. Because gallstones cause identical symptoms to early GBC (right upper quadrant pain, nausea after fatty meals), many patients undergo cholecystectomy for presumed benign gallstone disease and have GBC found only on pathological examination of the removed specimen. This incidental discovery pattern accounts for 40–50% of all GBC diagnoses — underscoring the absolute requirement that every gallbladder specimen removed at surgery be sent to pathology, regardless of how straightforward the clinical picture appeared.

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2. Epidemiology and Global Incidence

Gallbladder cancer affects approximately 11,000 Americans annually, making it relatively rare in the United States. Globally, however, incidence varies dramatically by geography — a variation so striking that it has driven important etiological research.

High-Incidence Regions

The highest age-standardized incidence rates in the world occur in:

Demographics

Gallbladder cancer shows a pronounced female predominance (3:1 female-to-male ratio in most populations), mirroring the higher prevalence of gallstone disease in women. In the United States, Native Americans and Hispanic women have substantially higher GBC incidence than non-Hispanic white women, again tracking with gallstone disease prevalence. The median age at diagnosis is 65–70 years, with most patients presenting in the sixth and seventh decades.

In absolute numbers, the United States sees approximately 11,000 new cases and 4,000 deaths annually from GBC. While these numbers are small relative to colorectal or breast cancer, the lethality — fewer than 15% of patients surviving five years — gives GBC an outsized death-to-incidence ratio.

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3. Risk Factors and Carcinogenesis

The dominant risk factor for gallbladder cancer is gallstone disease, and the carcinogenic pathway likely involves chronic mucosal inflammation from stone-related trauma, bile acid dysregulation, and bacterial colonization. However, not all stones carry equal risk, and several additional factors substantially modify individual risk.

Gallstones and Chronic Inflammation

Gallstones are present in 70–90% of GBC patients, making them the most prevalent associated condition. Risk features that particularly elevate GBC risk include:

Gallbladder Polyps

Gallbladder polyps detected on ultrasound require careful risk stratification:

Porcelain Gallbladder

Calcification of the gallbladder wall (porcelain gallbladder) was historically considered a strong GBC risk factor, triggering prophylactic cholecystectomy. Contemporary evidence is more nuanced: complete, diffuse wall calcification does not increase GBC risk, while selective mucosal (incomplete) calcification may carry modestly elevated risk. Patients with porcelain gallbladder discovered incidentally on imaging should be evaluated by a hepatobiliary surgeon, particularly if calcification is incomplete or focal.

Anomalous Pancreaticobiliary Junction (APBJ)

APBJ — a congenital malunion of the pancreatic and common bile ducts creating a long common channel outside the duodenal wall — is the strongest relative risk factor for GBC, conferring a 20-fold or higher increased risk. The abnormal union allows pancreatic secretions to reflux chronically into the biliary tree, causing repeated chemical inflammation of the gallbladder epithelium. APBJ is particularly prevalent in Japan and East Asia and accounts for a disproportionate share of GBC in younger patients and women in these regions. Detection of APBJ on MRCP (magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography) warrants prophylactic cholecystectomy even in the absence of symptoms or stones.

Additional Risk Factors

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4. Molecular Pathology: HER2, FGFR, and Beyond

Gallbladder cancer has a heterogeneous molecular landscape. Unlike pancreatic cancer (where KRAS dominates) or colorectal cancer (with its relatively homogeneous MMR/KRAS/BRAF landscape), GBC harbors a broader distribution of oncogenic alterations — a feature that makes comprehensive molecular profiling particularly important to identify actionable targets.

ERBB2/HER2 Amplification or Overexpression

HER2 amplification or overexpression is the most clinically actionable alteration in GBC, present in approximately 15–20% of cases. This is a substantially higher rate than in biliary tract cancers overall (where HER2 alterations are less common in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma). The MyPathway basket trial and subsequent studies have demonstrated responses to trastuzumab-based regimens in HER2-positive GBC, and several dedicated clinical trials are now evaluating anti-HER2 agents in this population. HER2 IHC and FISH testing are recommended for all patients with advanced GBC.

FGFR Alterations

FGFR2 fusion genes (which drive approximately 15% of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma and are the target of FDA-approved pemigatinib and infigratinib) are uncommon in GBC. However, FGFR1 amplifications and FGFR3 mutations occur in a small subset of GBC, and FGFR inhibitors may represent a treatment option in patients whose tumors harbor these alterations on next-generation sequencing (NGS).

KRAS and TP53

KRAS mutations occur in approximately 10–25% of GBC and, as in other GI cancers, have long been considered untargetable. TP53 mutations are among the most frequent alterations in GBC (40–60% of cases), reflecting its role in late-stage carcinogenesis after chronic inflammatory mucosal injury. TP53 mutations correlate with more aggressive histological grade and worse prognosis but currently lack specific targeted interventions.

PIK3CA, CDKN2A, and IDH

PIK3CA mutations (activating PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway) occur in 10–20% of GBC and have led to early-phase trials of PI3K pathway inhibitors. CDKN2A (p16) deletion and IDH1/2 mutations are present in smaller subsets; IDH inhibitors (ivosidenib for IDH1) have shown efficacy in cholangiocarcinoma and may benefit the small fraction of IDH-mutated GBC patients.

Mismatch Repair Deficiency and TMB

Microsatellite instability-high (MSI-H) or mismatch repair-deficient (dMMR) status occurs in 5–8% of GBC. These tumors may respond to pembrolizumab per the tissue-agnostic FDA approval. Additionally, high tumor mutational burden (TMB-High, ≥10 mut/Mb) occurs in a subset of GBC and may predict benefit from pembrolizumab regardless of MSI status.

The practical implication of this molecular heterogeneity is that comprehensive tumor profiling (NGS panel, MMR IHC, HER2 IHC/FISH) should be obtained for all patients with advanced GBC at the time of diagnosis to inform second-line and subsequent therapy options.

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5. Clinical Presentation

The most challenging aspect of gallbladder cancer is its tendency to remain clinically silent until locally advanced or metastatic. The symptoms of early-stage GBC — right upper quadrant discomfort, nausea, and intolerance to fatty foods — are indistinguishable from symptomatic gallstone disease, which is far more common and in which clinicians' initial reflex is to attribute symptoms to benign cholelithiasis.

Incidental Discovery (40–50% of Cases)

The largest single mode of GBC detection is incidental discovery at laparoscopic cholecystectomy performed for presumed symptomatic cholelithiasis or acute cholecystitis. The gallbladder is removed, the patient recovers, and the pathology report returns days later with a diagnosis of carcinoma. This scenario requires a structured management algorithm (see Surgical Treatment section) and underscores the non-negotiable requirement that every gallbladder be sent for formal pathological examination — including gross sectioning with attention to the mucosa and wall thickness.

Symptomatic Presentation

When GBC presents symptomatically, the clinical picture varies by stage:

Imaging Red Flags

Certain findings on routine abdominal ultrasound (the most common first-line investigation for biliary symptoms) should prompt concern for malignancy rather than benign gallbladder disease: gallbladder wall thickening greater than 3–4 mm (particularly focal or asymmetric), a polypoid intraluminal mass, discontinuity of the mucosal line, hepatic invasion at the gallbladder fossa, and biliary ductal dilation. Any of these findings warrants further cross-sectional imaging with contrast-enhanced CT or MRI/MRCP before proceeding to cholecystectomy.

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6. Staging and Resectability Assessment

Gallbladder cancer is staged using the AJCC (American Joint Committee on Cancer) eighth edition TNM system. T stage reflects the depth of tumor invasion through the gallbladder wall layers, which is the most critical determinant of surgical approach for early disease:

Staging Workup

For newly diagnosed or suspected GBC, the staging workup includes:

Factors Rendering Disease Unresectable

The majority of GBC patients (70–80%) present with unresectable disease. Key contraindications to resection include: bilateral hepatic involvement beyond what can be removed with adequate functional reserve, main portal vein or bilateral hepatic artery encasement, extensive peritoneal carcinomatosis, and distant metastases (liver, lung, or bone parenchymal metastases).

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7. Surgical Treatment: From Incidental to Radical Resection

Surgery remains the only potentially curative treatment for gallbladder cancer. The appropriate surgical approach depends critically on T stage and the circumstances of diagnosis (incidental vs. planned resection for suspected GBC).

Management of Incidentally Discovered GBC

When pathology unexpectedly reveals GBC in a cholecystectomy specimen, the management algorithm is guided by T stage and the adequacy of prior resection:

Port-Site Resection After Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy

When GBC is discovered after laparoscopic cholecystectomy, there is a well-documented risk of port-site implantation — tumor seeding along the abdominal wall at the trocar insertion sites. This occurs because laparoscopic surgery disrupts the fascial barrier and creates opportunities for tumor cell implantation in the pneumoperitoneum environment, particularly when bile spillage occurred during surgery. At re-operation, all four trocar port sites should be widely excised as part of the radical resection. The clinical significance of port-site metastases is debated (whether they represent a truly isolated local recurrence or simply reflect systemic spread), but excision is standard practice.

Radical Cholecystectomy for Planned GBC Resection

For patients with GBC diagnosed preoperatively (by imaging with or without biopsy), the surgical approach consists of:

  1. Staging laparoscopy first to exclude peritoneal disease.
  2. Hepatic bed resection: Segments IVb and V are resected en bloc with the gallbladder fossa. For T3 tumors with deeper hepatic invasion, an extended hepatectomy may be required.
  3. Regional lymphadenectomy: Resection of the cystic duct node, hepatoduodenal ligament nodes, portal lymph nodes, and periportal tissue to achieve N1 staging. At least six nodes should be examined.
  4. Bile duct resection: Performed only if the cystic duct margin is positive or if the common hepatic or common bile duct is directly involved. Routine bile duct excision is not performed.

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8. Systemic Therapy: Chemotherapy and Immunotherapy

Adjuvant Therapy After Curative Resection

The BILCAP trial (Primrose et al., 2019) established capecitabine as the standard adjuvant therapy for resected biliary tract cancers, including gallbladder cancer. In this randomized phase III trial, patients with resected cholangiocarcinoma or GBC were randomized to capecitabine (1,250 mg/m² twice daily, days 1–14, every 21 days for 8 cycles) versus observation. The primary endpoint of overall survival in the intention-to-treat population narrowly missed statistical significance (median OS 51.1 months vs. 36.4 months; HR 0.80; p=0.097), but the pre-specified per-protocol analysis showed significant benefit (HR 0.75; p=0.028). Most international guidelines now recommend capecitabine adjuvant therapy for 6 months after R0 or R1 resection of biliary tract cancers.

First-Line Palliative Chemotherapy: Gemcitabine + Cisplatin

For patients with unresectable, locally advanced, or metastatic GBC, gemcitabine plus cisplatin (GemCis) became the reference first-line regimen following the ABC-02 trial (Valle et al., 2010). This landmark randomized phase III trial enrolled 410 patients with advanced biliary tract cancers (cholangiocarcinoma, GBC, and ampullary carcinoma) and demonstrated superior overall survival with GemCis versus gemcitabine alone (11.7 months vs. 8.1 months; HR 0.64; p<0.001). Progression-free survival and response rate also favored the combination. GemCis remained standard of care for a decade, until the addition of immunotherapy.

First-Line Immunotherapy: Gemcitabine + Cisplatin + Durvalumab (TOPAZ-1)

The TOPAZ-1 trial (Oh et al., 2022) evaluated the addition of durvalumab (a PD-L1 inhibitor, 1500 mg flat dose every 3 weeks) to gemcitabine plus cisplatin versus chemotherapy alone in patients with previously untreated advanced biliary tract cancer, including GBC. The trial met its primary endpoint: durvalumab plus GemCis improved overall survival compared to placebo plus GemCis (median OS 12.8 months vs. 11.5 months; HR 0.80; p=0.021), with 24-month OS rates of 24.9% vs. 10.4%. The benefit was consistent across biliary tract cancer subtypes, including GBC. Based on these results, the FDA approved durvalumab in combination with gemcitabine and cisplatin in September 2022 as first-line treatment for adult patients with locally advanced or metastatic biliary tract cancers. This combination is now the preferred first-line regimen for eligible patients.

Alternative First-Line Regimens

The NALIRIFOX regimen (liposomal irinotecan, fluorouracil, leucovorin, and oxaliplatin) is being evaluated in biliary tract cancers. FOLFOX (fluorouracil, leucovorin, oxaliplatin) is used in some centers for cisplatin-ineligible patients. Gemcitabine plus oxaliplatin (GEMOX) represents another cisplatin-sparing alternative for patients with impaired renal function.

Second-Line Therapy

No randomized phase III trial has definitively established a standard second-line regimen for GBC. Options used in practice include FOLFOX (as demonstrated in the ABC-06 trial for biliary tract cancers generally), pembrolizumab for MSI-H/dMMR tumors (tissue-agnostic approval), and clinical trial participation. FOLFIRI and mFOLFOX6 are also used. The relatively poor performance status of many GBC patients at disease progression often limits second-line treatment options.

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9. Targeted Therapy and Biomarker-Driven Treatment

The molecular heterogeneity of GBC has motivated a comprehensive biomarker-testing strategy at diagnosis, particularly for patients with advanced disease. Several actionable alterations can guide treatment selection beyond standard chemotherapy.

HER2-Directed Therapy

HER2 overexpression or amplification occurs in 15–20% of GBC — the highest rate among biliary tract cancer subtypes. The MyPathway multi-basket trial evaluated trastuzumab (8 mg/kg loading, then 6 mg/kg every 3 weeks) plus pertuzumab (840 mg loading, then 420 mg every 3 weeks) in HER2-positive biliary tract cancers and demonstrated an objective response rate of 23% with a median duration of response of 10 months. Several ongoing trials are evaluating trastuzumab deruxtecan (T-DXd), a HER2-targeted antibody-drug conjugate with demonstrated efficacy across multiple HER2-expressing solid tumors, in advanced GBC. HER2 testing (IHC 3+ or FISH amplification) is recommended for all patients with unresectable or metastatic GBC.

MSI-H/dMMR Tumors

Pembrolizumab is FDA approved (tissue-agnostic) for all MSI-H or dMMR solid tumors, including GBC. MSI-H/dMMR status occurs in 5–8% of GBC. In the KEYNOTE-158 basket trial, pembrolizumab demonstrated an objective response rate of approximately 40% in MSI-H biliary tract cancers, substantially higher than in microsatellite-stable tumors (<5% response). MMR IHC testing (MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS2) should be performed on all advanced GBC specimens.

IDH1 Inhibition

IDH1 mutations are present in approximately 5% of GBC (more common in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma at 20%). Ivosidenib (an IDH1 inhibitor, 500 mg daily) received FDA approval in 2021 for previously treated IDH1-mutant cholangiocarcinoma based on the ClarIDHy trial. While most evidence derives from cholangiocarcinoma cohorts, GBC patients with IDH1 mutations are eligible for ivosidenib and may derive clinical benefit.

FGFR Inhibitors

FGFR2 fusions (the primary driver for FDA-approved pemigatinib and infigratinib) are rare in GBC (<1%). However, FGFR1 amplifications and FGFR3 mutations occur in a small fraction of GBC, and patients with these alterations may be candidates for clinical trials of FGFR inhibitors or off-label use.

TMB-High Tumors

Pembrolizumab is FDA approved for TMB-high (≥10 mut/Mb) solid tumors regardless of histology, per the KEYNOTE-158 data. Approximately 5–10% of GBC tumors are TMB-high, making this another avenue for checkpoint inhibitor therapy in patients without MSI-H or other actionable mutations.

A practical molecular testing protocol for advanced GBC at diagnosis should include: comprehensive NGS panel (covering HER2 amplification, IDH1/2, FGFR1-4, KRAS, TP53, PIK3CA, TMB), MMR IHC, and HER2 IHC/FISH as a parallel rapid test given the high actionability rate of HER2 alterations.

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10. Biliary Drainage and Supportive Care

Obstructive jaundice is a debilitating complication of advanced GBC that significantly impairs quality of life, interferes with systemic treatment (chemotherapy must be dose-modified or withheld for elevated bilirubin), and can rapidly progress to cholangitis and biliary sepsis. Effective biliary drainage is a critical component of GBC palliative care.

Endoscopic Biliary Drainage (ERCP)

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) with self-expanding metal stent (SEMS) placement is the preferred first-line drainage approach for most patients with GBC-related biliary obstruction involving the distal common bile duct or common hepatic duct. Metal stents are preferred over plastic stents for malignant biliary obstruction because they remain patent significantly longer (median 7–12 months vs. 3 months), requiring fewer repeat procedures. Covered metal stents reduce tumor ingrowth but have a higher migration rate; uncovered stents are most commonly used for malignant strictures.

Percutaneous Transhepatic Cholangiography (PTC)

When ERCP fails (most commonly due to duodenal invasion preventing endoscope positioning or failure to cannulate) or when the anatomy of the biliary stricture makes endoscopic access impossible (high hilar strictures), percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD) provides an alternative route. PTBD can be internalized to internal-external drainage or converted to an internal stent once the access track is matured. It is more invasive than ERCP and carries risks including pneumothorax, arteriovenous fistula, and bile leak, but is effective and often necessary in patients with GBC invading the hepatic hilum.

Nutritional Support and Palliative Care Integration

GBC patients frequently experience significant weight loss, anorexia, and cachexia. Nutritional assessment and support — including dietitian consultation and oral supplementation — should be integrated from early in the treatment course. Early palliative care consultation (as recommended by ASCO and ESMO for advanced cancers generally) improves quality of life, symptom control, and in some studies survival. Goals-of-care conversations are especially important in GBC given its rapid progression in many patients.

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11. Key Research Papers

  1. Valle J, et al. Cisplatin plus gemcitabine versus gemcitabine for biliary tract cancer. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(14):1273-1281. PMID: 20375404. The ABC-02 trial establishing gemcitabine plus cisplatin as standard first-line chemotherapy for advanced biliary tract cancers, including gallbladder cancer (OS 11.7m vs 8.1m, HR 0.64).
  2. Primrose JN, et al. Capecitabine compared with observation in resected biliary tract cancer (BILCAP): a randomised, controlled, multicentre, phase 3 study. Lancet Oncol. 2019;20(5):663-673. PMID: 30922733. Landmark BILCAP trial demonstrating survival benefit of adjuvant capecitabine after resection of biliary tract cancers; per-protocol OS 53m vs 36m (HR 0.75), now the reference adjuvant regimen.
  3. Oh DY, et al. Durvalumab plus gemcitabine and cisplatin in advanced biliary tract cancer. NEJM Evid. 2022;1(8):EVIDoa2200015. PMID: 36043009. TOPAZ-1 trial: addition of durvalumab to GemCis improved OS (HR 0.80; 24-month OS 24.9% vs 10.4%), establishing this triplet as the new first-line standard for advanced biliary tract cancers.
  4. Shroff RT, et al. Gemcitabine, cisplatin, and nab-paclitaxel for the treatment of advanced biliary tract cancers: a phase 2 clinical trial. JAMA Oncol. 2019;5(6):824-830. PMID: 30946412. Phase II triplet chemotherapy (GAP regimen) showing ORR 45% and median OS 19.2m in advanced biliary tract cancers, informing current combination chemotherapy exploration.
  5. Lamarca A, et al. Second-line FOLFOX chemotherapy versus active symptom control for advanced biliary tract cancer (ABC-06): a phase 3, open-label, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 2021;22(5):690-701. PMID: 33798493. ABC-06 trial demonstrating modest but statistically significant OS benefit of FOLFOX over active symptom control in second-line biliary tract cancer (OS 6.2m vs 5.3m, HR 0.69).
  6. Piha-Paul SA, et al. Efficacy and safety of trastuzumab and pertuzumab in patients with biliary tract cancer (MyPathway study). Eur J Cancer. 2021;142:1-8. PMID: 33075607. MyPathway HER2-positive biliary tract cancer cohort: ORR 23%, median duration of response 10 months, supporting HER2 as an actionable target in GBC.
  7. Abou-Alfa GK, et al. Ivosidenib in IDH1-mutant, chemotherapy-refractory cholangiocarcinoma (ClarIDHy): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 study. Lancet Oncol. 2020;21(6):796-807. PMID: 32416072. ClarIDHy trial of ivosidenib in IDH1-mutant cholangiocarcinoma (PFS 2.7m vs 1.4m), establishing IDH1 inhibition as a target relevant to IDH1-mutant GBC as well.
  8. Stein A, et al. Subgroup analyses of biliary tract cancer patients in the TOPAZ-1 randomised trial of durvalumab with gemcitabine and cisplatin. Eur J Cancer. 2023;182:50-60. PMID: 36701937. GBC-specific subgroup analysis from TOPAZ-1 confirming consistent durvalumab benefit across biliary tract cancer subtypes including gallbladder cancer.
  9. Tewari M. Contribution of Salmonella typhi in the causation of gallbladder cancer. J Surg Oncol. 2006;93(8):633-639. PMID: 16724340. Comprehensive review of Salmonella typhi carriage as a risk factor for gallbladder cancer, relevant to understanding geographic GBC incidence patterns.
  10. Kanthan R, et al. Gallbladder cancer in the 21st century. J Oncol. 2015;2015:967472. PMID: 26421012. Comprehensive review of GBC epidemiology, molecular pathology, and treatment landscape, providing foundational context for understanding this disease.
  11. Creasy JM, et al. Actual 10-year survival after resection of colorectal liver metastases defines cure. J Gastrointest Surg. 2018;22(1):67-74. PMID: 28795338. Comparative outcomes data informing surgical decision-making for hepatic resection in biliary tract malignancies.
  12. Vogel A, et al. Biliary tract cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guideline for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol. 2023;34(2):127-140. PMID: 36403850. Current ESMO guidelines for biliary tract cancers including GBC, incorporating molecular testing recommendations and updated treatment algorithms.

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12. PubMed Topic Searches

  1. Gallbladder cancer surgery radical cholecystectomy
  2. Incidental gallbladder carcinoma cholecystectomy management
  3. Gallbladder cancer gemcitabine cisplatin durvalumab TOPAZ-1
  4. HER2-positive gallbladder cancer trastuzumab
  5. Anomalous pancreaticobiliary junction gallbladder cancer risk
  6. Gallbladder polyp malignant transformation cholecystectomy
  7. Gallbladder cancer molecular profiling biomarkers targeted therapy
  8. Biliary tract cancer capecitabine adjuvant BILCAP trial

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Connections

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