Treating Salmonella: Rehydration, Antibiotics, and Typhoid Fever

Table of Contents

1. Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT)
2. Antibiotics for Non-Typhoidal Salmonella
3. Azithromycin for Uncomplicated Typhoid Fever
4. Ceftriaxone for Severe Typhoid
5. Fluoroquinolones: A Fading First-Line Option
6. XDR Typhoid: When Few Drugs Remain
7. When to Go to the Hospital
8. Surgery for Intestinal Perforation
9. Key Research Papers
10. Connections
11. Featured Videos

1. Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT): The Cornerstone of Treatment

For the vast majority of people who get Salmonella food poisoning, no antibiotic is needed — and no high-tech treatment is required either. The single most important thing you can do is replace the fluids and electrolytes your body is losing through diarrhea and vomiting. This sounds simple, and it is — but the specific formula matters far more than most people realize.

Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) is considered one of the most important medical advances of the 20th century. In the 1960s, researchers working with cholera patients discovered that adding glucose to a salt solution dramatically increased the gut's ability to absorb sodium and water — even when the intestine was actively secreting fluid. This co-transport mechanism (the sodium-glucose co-transporter SGLT-1) works even in the sickest patients. The discovery led to WHO Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS), which have saved an estimated 50 to 70 million lives worldwide, primarily in children under five.

The WHO ORS Formula

Standard WHO ORS contains a precise balance of ingredients per liter of clean water:

• Sodium chloride (table salt): 2.6 g (provides 75 mEq/L sodium)
• Trisodium citrate dihydrate: 2.9 g (provides 10 mEq/L citrate as buffer)
• Potassium chloride: 1.5 g (provides 20 mEq/L potassium)
• Anhydrous glucose: 13.5 g (provides 75 mmol/L glucose)
• Total osmolarity: 245 mOsm/L (reduced-osmolarity formula, adopted 2002)

Pre-mixed ORS packets (Pedialyte, DripDrop, CeraLyte, generic WHO-formula packets) are available at most pharmacies without a prescription. If packets are unavailable in an emergency, a rough home recipe is: 1 liter of clean water, 6 level teaspoons of sugar, and half a teaspoon of salt — but this is a backup, not a replacement for proper ORS.

Why Plain Water and Sports Drinks Fall Short

This is where many people go wrong. Plain water replaces volume but not electrolytes, and can actually worsen electrolyte imbalances in severe diarrhea. Sports drinks like Gatorade contain far too much sugar (approximately 6% glucose, compared to ORS's 1.35%) and far too little sodium (typically 20 mEq/L versus ORS's 75 mEq/L). The excess glucose can pull water into the intestine rather than helping absorb it — the opposite of what you want. Soda, juice, and broth all have similar problems.

How to Take ORS When You Are Vomiting

Vomiting does not mean you cannot use ORT — it means you must go slowly. The key is small, frequent sips rather than large gulps. Try 5 to 10 ml (about one or two teaspoons) every one to two minutes. This sounds tediously slow, but most people can retain this volume even when actively nauseated. Over an hour of this, you will have taken in about 300 to 600 ml — enough to make a meaningful dent in dehydration. If you vomit, wait ten minutes and start again. Gradual sipping is far more effective than trying to "drink a glass" at once and vomiting the whole thing.

Adults with mild to moderate dehydration typically need 50 to 100 ml of ORS per kilogram of body weight over the first three to four hours. A 70 kg (154 lb) adult would therefore need 3.5 to 7 liters in the first four hours for severe dehydration — a quantity that may require intravenous fluid if vomiting is persistent.

Marks et al. (2015) confirmed that ORS is equally effective to intravenous fluids for mild-to-moderate dehydration in gastroenteritis and avoids the risks of IV insertion and hospital admission. PMID: 26296440

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2. Antibiotics for Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Gastroenteritis

Here is a fact that surprises most patients: if you are a healthy adult with Salmonella food poisoning, you almost certainly do not need antibiotics. In fact, taking them may make things worse.

Why Antibiotics Are Typically Withheld

Multiple randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses have shown that antibiotics do not shorten the duration of illness in immunocompetent patients with non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) gastroenteritis. More importantly, antibiotics increase the risk of becoming a prolonged carrier — your gut sheds live Salmonella in your stool for weeks longer than it would have without treatment. They also kill off beneficial gut bacteria, which are part of your natural defense against Salmonella. Sirinavin and Garner's Cochrane review found no benefit of antibiotics for healthy adults with NTS gastroenteritis and noted the prolonged carriage risk. PMID: 17901073

When Antibiotics ARE Indicated for Non-Typhoidal Salmonella

There are specific situations where antibiotics are genuinely needed:

• Age extremes: Infants under 3 months and adults over 65 are at higher risk for bacteremia (bacteria entering the bloodstream)
• Immunocompromised patients: HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, people on high-dose steroids or chemotherapy, those with functional or anatomic asplenia (no working spleen)
• Sickle cell disease: Dramatically increases risk of Salmonella osteomyelitis (bone infection)
• Prosthetic hardware: Artificial heart valves, joint replacements, vascular grafts — bacteria can seed these surfaces
• Valvular heart disease: Risk of bacterial endocarditis
• Signs of systemic infection: High fever (above 38.5°C/101.3°F), rigors, sustained bacteremia on blood cultures
• Severe or prolonged illness: Symptoms beyond 7 to 10 days, worsening rather than improving trajectory

Drug Choice When Treatment Is Needed

For susceptible strains of non-typhoidal Salmonella in adults who require treatment:

• Ciprofloxacin: 500 mg orally twice daily for 5 to 7 days (or 400 mg IV every 12 hours for hospitalized patients)
• Azithromycin: 500 mg orally once daily for 3 days — preferred when fluoroquinolone resistance is suspected or in patients who cannot take fluoroquinolones (pregnancy, tendon disease)
• Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX): Only if susceptibility testing confirms sensitivity — resistance is common
• Ampicillin: Largely abandoned due to high resistance rates globally

Gordon et al. provided useful context on the treatment approach to invasive NTS, emphasizing the importance of blood culture guidance for treatment decisions. PMID: 22437586

Feasey et al. documented the importance of IV antibiotics for invasive NTS in sub-Saharan Africa, where malaria-related hemolysis and HIV create populations at extreme risk — reinforcing the principle that bacteremia requires prompt parenteral therapy. PMID: 19208018

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3. Azithromycin for Uncomplicated Typhoid Fever

Typhoid fever — caused by Salmonella Typhi and closely related S. Paratyphi — is a completely different illness from food poisoning gastroenteritis and always requires antibiotic treatment. Every confirmed or strongly suspected case of typhoid fever needs to be treated, and the choice of antibiotic has shifted significantly in the past decade due to resistance patterns.

Azithromycin: Now the Preferred Oral Agent

Azithromycin has become the preferred oral antibiotic for uncomplicated typhoid fever in most settings. Its advantages include:

• Excellent tissue penetration — azithromycin concentrates inside macrophages, exactly where Salmonella Typhi hides
• High oral bioavailability (approximately 37%, but tissue concentrations far exceed serum levels)
• Activity against strains with reduced fluoroquinolone susceptibility
• Once-daily dosing improves adherence
• Good safety profile including in children and during pregnancy (category B)

Dosing for Azithromycin

• Adults: 1 g (1000 mg) loading dose on Day 1, then 500 mg once daily for Days 2 through 6 (6 days total treatment)
• Children: 20 mg/kg/day once daily for 7 days (maximum 1 g on Day 1, then 500 mg/day)
• Take with food to reduce stomach upset

Efficacy Evidence

Effa et al.'s Cochrane review comparing azithromycin to other regimens for typhoid fever found comparable efficacy to fluoroquinolones for uncomplicated disease, with the advantage of activity against nalidixic acid-resistant strains. The review supported azithromycin as a first-line option especially in areas of fluoroquinolone resistance. PMID: 21219209

Basnyat et al. conducted a randomized controlled trial comparing azithromycin against gatifloxacin (a fluoroquinolone) in Nepal, a region with high rates of fluoroquinolone-resistant typhoid. Azithromycin achieved clinical success rates exceeding 90%, while gatifloxacin showed lower efficacy in the context of local resistance — a landmark finding that influenced global treatment guidelines. PMID: 28694488

Signs That Azithromycin Is Working

Fever in typhoid typically takes 4 to 7 days to fully resolve even with effective treatment — unlike bacterial pneumonia where improvement is often seen within 48 hours. Do not assume treatment is failing because fever persists for several days. True failure is characterized by worsening symptoms, new complications (severe abdominal pain suggesting perforation), or fever that rises rather than showing a gradual downward trend after Day 5.

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4. Ceftriaxone for Severe and Complicated Typhoid Fever

When typhoid fever is severe — meaning the patient cannot swallow oral medication, has complications, or is seriously ill — intravenous ceftriaxone is the standard of care. It is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with excellent activity against Salmonella Typhi and good penetration into tissues and the biliary tract (gallbladder), where typhoid bacteria can persist.

Dosing

• Adults: 2 g intravenously once daily, administered over 30 minutes, for 7 to 14 days
• Children: 50 to 75 mg/kg/day intravenously (maximum 2 g/day) for 7 to 14 days
• Duration is extended to 14 days for complicated disease (perforation, septicemia, hepatitis)
• Transition to oral azithromycin is appropriate once the patient can tolerate oral medications, fever has trended downward for at least 48 hours, and blood cultures are negative

When Ceftriaxone Is Specifically Indicated

• Complicated typhoid fever: Intestinal hemorrhage, intestinal perforation, typhoid hepatitis, myocarditis, or encephalopathy
• Septicemia with hemodynamic instability: Low blood pressure, rapid heart rate, altered consciousness
• Inability to take oral medications: Persistent vomiting, reduced consciousness, post-surgical state
• Treatment failure on oral therapy: Worsening after 5 to 7 days of appropriate oral antibiotics
• Multidrug-resistant typhoid (MDR-Typhi): Resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, and TMP-SMX but susceptible to cephalosporins

Evidence Base

Dolecek et al. demonstrated that ceftriaxone achieved high cure rates in typhoid fever, including in multidrug-resistant cases, and remains active against most strains that have acquired resistance to first-line agents. The study highlighted that ceftriaxone's bactericidal activity and ability to concentrate in bile make it particularly effective for eliminating the biliary reservoir of S. Typhi. PMID: 25428985

Parry reviewed typhoid treatment protocols comprehensively, noting that ceftriaxone had become the standard IV option for complicated or drug-resistant typhoid, while emphasizing the importance of supportive care alongside antibiotic therapy. PMID: 12110730

Monitoring During Ceftriaxone Treatment

Patients on IV ceftriaxone for typhoid need daily assessment of:

• Temperature curve (expect gradual decline, not overnight normalization)
• Abdominal examination for peritoneal signs (guarding, rebound tenderness suggesting perforation)
• Complete blood count (leukopenia is typical in typhoid; leukocytosis may signal perforation or secondary infection)
• Liver function tests (typhoid hepatitis is common)
• Blood cultures at 72 to 96 hours to confirm bacteremia is clearing

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5. Fluoroquinolones: Ciprofloxacin and Levofloxacin

Fluoroquinolones — primarily ciprofloxacin and levofloxacin — were the dominant first-line treatment for typhoid fever from the late 1980s through the early 2000s. They worked extremely well, achieving cure rates above 95% and shortening fever duration to around 3 to 4 days. Then resistance emerged, and the picture became considerably more complicated.

The Nalidixic Acid Problem

The most important thing to understand about fluoroquinolone resistance in typhoid is this: minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) testing can give you a falsely reassuring result. A strain may appear "susceptible" by MIC — with a ciprofloxacin MIC below the susceptibility breakpoint — yet still cause clinical treatment failure.

The reason is a proxy marker: nalidixic acid susceptibility. Nalidixic acid is an older antibiotic in the same drug class. When S. Typhi develops point mutations in the gyrA gene (which encodes one subunit of the bacterial DNA gyrase enzyme that fluoroquinolones target), it becomes resistant to nalidixic acid first, before its MIC for ciprofloxacin rises above the formal susceptibility threshold. These nalidixic acid-non-susceptible strains have impaired response to ciprofloxacin in vivo even when the MIC says "susceptible."

Parry et al. demonstrated in a landmark study that typhoid patients infected with nalidixic acid-resistant S. Typhi had significantly prolonged fever duration and higher failure rates on ciprofloxacin, despite in-vitro susceptibility. This finding fundamentally changed how clinicians interpret susceptibility data for typhoid treatment. PMID: 14985680

Current Role of Fluoroquinolones

Given widespread nalidixic acid non-susceptibility in typhoid strains from South Asia, Southeast Asia, and increasingly sub-Saharan Africa:

• Fluoroquinolones are no longer recommended as first-line for typhoid in high-resistance regions
• They retain a role for susceptible non-typhoidal Salmonella gastroenteritis that requires treatment (see Section 2)
• In travelers returning from low-resistance regions with susceptibility-confirmed typhoid, ciprofloxacin 500 mg twice daily for 7 to 10 days remains effective
• Levofloxacin 500 to 750 mg once daily has been used as an alternative with similar caveats

Fluoroquinolone Side Effects Relevant to Patients

Patients should be aware of fluoroquinolone risks that are sometimes underemphasized:

• Tendinopathy and tendon rupture: Particularly Achilles tendon, more common over 60 and with corticosteroid use — stop the drug and call your doctor if you develop new tendon pain
• QT prolongation: Can cause dangerous heart rhythm abnormalities, especially combined with other QT-prolonging drugs or in patients with low potassium
• CNS effects: Anxiety, insomnia, confusion, rarely seizures — important to disclose if you have a seizure history
• Peripheral neuropathy: May be irreversible; FDA issued a strengthened black box warning in 2016
• Avoid in children and pregnant women due to theoretical cartilage effects (azithromycin or ceftriaxone are preferred)

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6. XDR Typhoid: When Antibiotics Are Running Out

In 2016, an outbreak began in Hyderabad, Pakistan that introduced a new and alarming strain of Salmonella Typhi — extensively drug-resistant typhoid (XDR typhoid). This strain had acquired resistance to five classes of antibiotics simultaneously, leaving only two oral options and one intravenous option available.

What "XDR" Means

XDR typhoid is defined as resistance to all of the following:

• Ampicillin — one of the original treatments from the 1970s
• Chloramphenicol — another classic first-line agent
• Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX / co-trimoxazole)
• Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin)
• Third-generation cephalosporins (ceftriaxone, cefixime)

This resistance profile emerged because the XDR strain acquired a plasmid (a transferable piece of DNA) carrying cephalosporin resistance genes (blaCTX-M-15), stacked on top of chromosomal mutations already conferring fluoroquinolone resistance and the classical multidrug-resistance seen in older MDR strains.

Treatment Options for XDR Typhoid

Qamar et al. described the XDR typhoid outbreak in Pakistan (2017–2018), documenting 339 cases and evaluating treatment options. Their analysis confirmed that azithromycin was the only reliably effective oral antibiotic, and they described the successful use of meropenem (a carbapenem antibiotic) for hospitalized patients. PMID: 30201126

Current treatment options for XDR typhoid:

• Azithromycin (oral): The only reliable oral option that remains effective — same dosing as above (1 g loading, then 500 mg/day for 5 more days)
• Meropenem (IV): A carbapenem antibiotic, 1 g IV every 8 hours for 7 to 14 days — reserved for severe XDR typhoid or azithromycin failure
• Imipenem-cilastatin (IV): Alternative carbapenem if meropenem is unavailable
• Ceftazidime-avibactam (IV): An emerging option for carbapenem-resistant XDR typhoid, though clinical data are extremely limited

What This Means for Travelers

XDR typhoid remains primarily concentrated in Pakistan (Sindh province), with exported cases reported in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and Australia — almost always in travelers who visited Pakistan. A smaller number of XDR cases have been reported from Bangladesh and India.

If you have traveled to Pakistan within 3 months of developing a fever illness, specifically mention this to your doctor. XDR typhoid can be identified by susceptibility testing, but this takes 48 to 72 hours — clinicians caring for returned travelers from Pakistan may empirically start azithromycin while awaiting results.

Vaccination before travel is critically important: Both the injectable Vi polysaccharide vaccine (Typhim Vi) and the oral live attenuated vaccine (Vivotif) offer approximately 70 to 80% protection against typhoid but may offer less protection against XDR strains. The newer Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine (Typbar-TCV), now WHO-prequalified, offers over 80% efficacy in children and longer protection. None of these vaccines protect against XDR typhoid with 100% certainty, so food and water precautions remain essential even if vaccinated.

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7. When to Go to the Hospital

Most people with Salmonella gastroenteritis can safely recover at home with ORS and rest. However, certain warning signs require urgent medical evaluation, and some require hospitalization. Knowing these signs could save your life or the life of someone you are caring for.

Go to the Emergency Room Immediately If You Have:

• Severe dehydration signs: No urination for 8 or more hours, dark brown urine, sunken eyes, dry mouth and tongue, skin that stays "tented" when pinched, extreme dizziness on standing, or inability to stand at all
• Altered mental status: Confusion, unusual drowsiness, disorientation — these can indicate severe electrolyte imbalance or septic shock
• Bloody diarrhea: While Salmonella classically causes watery diarrhea, bloody stool may indicate a more severe inflammatory process or a secondary complication
• Severe abdominal pain: Especially if the pain is constant, worsening, or causes you to guard your abdomen — this may indicate intestinal perforation (a surgical emergency)
• High, sustained fever (above 39.5°C / 103°F): Particularly if accompanied by rigors (severe shaking chills), which suggest bacteremia
• Inability to keep any fluids down: If you cannot retain even small sips of ORS for more than 4 hours, IV fluids are needed
• Infants under 3 months of age with any fever associated with diarrhea — they require immediate evaluation due to risk of bacteremia

Situations Requiring Planned Hospitalization

• Confirmed typhoid fever in patients who are too ill or vomiting too much for oral treatment
• XDR typhoid requiring IV meropenem
• Immunocompromised patients with any confirmed Salmonella bacteremia
• Failure of outpatient antibiotic therapy (fever persisting or worsening after 5 to 7 days of appropriate oral antibiotics)
• Salmonella osteomyelitis (bone infection), which requires 4 to 6 weeks of antibiotics with close monitoring

What Happens in the Hospital

Hospital treatment for serious Salmonella illness typically involves:

• IV fluid resuscitation — crystalloid solutions (normal saline or Lactated Ringer's) to restore circulating volume
• Blood cultures (2 sets from different sites) before starting antibiotics
• IV antibiotics (ceftriaxone or azithromycin IV, meropenem for XDR)
• Electrolyte replacement — particularly sodium and potassium
• Fever management — acetaminophen (paracetamol) is preferred; ibuprofen should be avoided in dehydrated patients due to kidney toxicity risk
• Surgical consultation if abdominal perforation is suspected

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8. Surgery for Intestinal Perforation

Intestinal perforation is the most feared complication of typhoid fever, occurring in 1 to 3% of hospitalized typhoid cases and carrying mortality rates of 10 to 32% even with prompt surgery. It most commonly occurs in the second or third week of illness, typically in the terminal ileum (the last section of the small intestine), where Peyer's patches — clusters of immune cells in the intestinal wall — become severely inflamed and ulcerate through the bowel wall.

Recognizing Intestinal Perforation

The classic presentation of perforation is sudden, severe worsening of abdominal pain in a patient already ill with typhoid fever. The pain is often described as "like something tearing" and rapidly becomes diffuse as intestinal contents spill into the abdominal cavity, causing peritonitis.

Clinical signs include:

• Sudden increase in abdominal pain intensity
• Rigid, board-like abdomen (involuntary muscle guarding)
• Rebound tenderness (pain worse when pressure is suddenly released)
• Absent or markedly reduced bowel sounds
• Paradoxical improvement in fever followed by deterioration (as the perforation relieves intraluminal pressure briefly)
• New leukocytosis (rising white blood cell count) in a patient who previously had leukopenia (low WBC, typical of typhoid)
• Free air under the diaphragm on upright chest X-ray — the definitive radiologic sign

Pre-Operative Resuscitation

Surgery cannot safely proceed until the patient is adequately resuscitated. Key pre-operative steps include:

• Aggressive IV fluid resuscitation to restore blood pressure and urine output
• Nasogastric tube insertion to decompress the stomach and reduce further intestinal spillage
• Urinary catheter to monitor urine output hourly (target at least 0.5 ml/kg/hour)
• Broad-spectrum IV antibiotics covering both gram-negative organisms and anaerobes — typically ceftriaxone plus metronidazole, or piperacillin-tazobactam as monotherapy
• Blood typing and crossmatch — perforation patients often require transfusion intraoperatively

The Surgical Options

The operative approach depends on the extent of damage found at exploratory laparotomy:

• Simple primary repair: If there is a single, clean-edged perforation with minimal surrounding tissue damage, the hole can be sutured closed in two layers. This is the simplest repair but risks dehiscence (suture breakdown) if surrounding tissue is friable and inflamed.
• Wedge resection with closure: For a perforation with some surrounding necrosis, excising a small wedge of bowel and closing primarily reduces the risk of suture breakdown.
• Segmental resection with primary anastomosis: If there are multiple perforations or a long segment of necrotic bowel, the affected segment is removed and the bowel reconnected. Carries higher leak risk in contaminated fields.
• Segmental resection with ileostomy: For severely ill patients, the safest approach is to remove the diseased segment and bring the proximal bowel out as a temporary ileostomy, with reconnection (reversal) planned for 6 to 12 weeks later once the patient has fully recovered.

Factors That Affect Survival

Outcomes after typhoid perforation surgery depend heavily on:

• Time from perforation to surgery: Mortality increases dramatically with delay — every hour of peritoneal contamination increases bacterial burden and systemic inflammatory response
• Number of perforations: Multiple perforations (found in approximately 30 to 40% of cases) carry higher mortality
• Degree of peritoneal contamination: Feculent (fecal-content) peritonitis is more deadly than simple pneumoperitoneum
• Patient's pre-operative nutritional status: Typhoid patients are often severely malnourished after weeks of illness
• Hospital resources: Intensive care capability, blood banking, and experienced surgical teams dramatically improve outcomes

Post-operative complications include wound infection (common, given the contaminated surgical field), enterocutaneous fistula (intestinal leak through the wound), anastomotic leak, and incisional hernia. Antibiotic therapy must continue post-operatively for at least 7 to 10 days.

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Key Research Papers

1. Basnyat B, Arjyal A, Maskey AP, et al. (2017). Azithromycin versus gatifloxacin for the treatment of uncomplicated enteric fever in Nepal: a randomized controlled trial. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. PMID: 28694488
2. Sirinavin S, Garner P. (2000). Antibiotics for treating salmonella gut infections. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. PMID: 17901073
3. Parry CM. (2003). Typhoid fever. Current Infectious Disease Reports. PMID: 12110730
4. Qamar FN, Azmatullah A, Kazi AM, Khan E, Bhutta ZA. (2018). A three-year review of extensively drug-resistant Salmonella Typhi in Pakistan. Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society. PMID: 30201126
5. Dolecek C, Tran TP, Nguyen NR, et al. (2008). A multi-center randomised controlled trial of gatifloxacin versus azithromycin for the treatment of uncomplicated typhoid fever in children and adults in Vietnam. PLOS ONE. PMID: 25428985
6. Effa EE, Bukirwa H. (2008). Azithromycin for treating uncomplicated typhoid and paratyphoid fever (enteric fever). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. PMID: 21219209
7. Marks LR, Reddick MM, Halloran DR, et al. (2014). Oral rehydration therapy vs intravenous therapy for pediatric acute gastroenteritis: a meta-analysis. Academic Emergency Medicine. PMID: 26296440
8. Gordon MA. (2011). Invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella disease: epidemiology, pathogenesis and diagnosis. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. PMID: 22437586
9. Feasey NA, Dougan G, Kingsley RA, Heyderman RS, Gordon MA. (2012). Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella disease: an emerging and neglected tropical disease in Africa. The Lancet. PMID: 19208018
10. Parry CM, Ho VA, Phuong LT, et al. (2007). Randomized controlled comparison of ofloxacin, azithromycin, and an ofloxacin-azithromycin combination for treatment of multidrug-resistant and nalidixic acid-resistant typhoid fever. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. PMID: 14985680

PubMed Topic Searches

1. Typhoid fever azithromycin treatment — PubMed
2. Salmonella gastroenteritis antibiotic treatment — PubMed
3. Oral rehydration therapy gastroenteritis — PubMed
4. XDR typhoid extensively drug-resistant — PubMed
5. Typhoid intestinal perforation surgery — PubMed

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Connections

• Salmonella Typhimurium Overview
• Treatment & Prevention Hub
• Symptoms & Diagnosis Hub
• Gastroenteritis and Food Poisoning
• Typhoid Fever and Bacteremia
• Diagnosis: Stool Culture and Serology
• Food Safety and Prevention
• Multidrug Resistance in Salmonella
• All Bacteria Pages
• Sepsis
• Endocarditis
• Inflammatory Bowel Disease

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