Overlooked Signs of Parasites

Table of Contents

1. What the Presentation Said
2. Why Parasite Signs Are Hard to Read
3. Night-Time Anal Itching and Pinworm
4. Teeth Grinding
5. Bed-Wetting
6. Dark Circles Under the Eyes
7. A Blood Clue: Eosinophilia
8. Skin Tracks: Larva Currens and Creeping Eruption
9. Diarrhoea, Pain and Bloating After Travel
10. How the Claim Compares With the Research
11. What Is Not Known
12. Connections
13. Key Research Papers
14. Featured Videos

What the Presentation Said

The presentation was a 2026 webinar on cancer and parasites given by the medical director of an integrative cancer clinic. In one slide, the speaker listed what were described as some of the most common parasite symptoms that are overlooked. As far as the automatic transcript can be read, the list was:

• an itchy anal area, especially in children;
• teeth grinding;
• restlessness;
• bed-wetting;
• dark circles and discoloration under the eyes;
• abdominal, stomach and intestinal problems such as pain, bloating and diarrhoea.

One further item in the same list is garbled in the transcript and cannot be read reliably, so it is not reported here. The speaker added that there are "many more" signs, and earlier in the talk described fatigue, brain fog, mood changes, anxiety and depression as possible features of parasite infection (those claims are examined on the sibling page Parasites, Mood and the Nervous System).

The speaker's reasoning, as presented, ran in three steps: the symptoms of parasite infection are non-specific and mimic other conditions; standard stool tests miss many infections; and a primary-care doctor who does not think of parasites will not order a test at all. The speaker proposed combining symptom evaluation, exposure history and several kinds of tests, and closed the talk by urging listeners not to wait for symptoms and to ask their doctors about testing. No study was cited for the list of signs itself.

The sections below take each sign in turn and report what has been measured: how often it appears in people who have a parasite, and how often it appears in people who do not.

Why Parasite Signs Are Hard to Read

The first part of the speaker's reasoning is well supported. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC), in the 2026 edition of its travel-medicine handbook (the "Yellow Book"), writes that parasitic infections can be difficult to diagnose because they present with non-specific symptoms, have variable and sometimes long incubation periods, have limited testing available, and may be unfamiliar to health professionals (Wendt and colleagues, 2025).

Two terms help in reading the rest of this page:

• Sensitivity of a sign means how often it is present in people who really have the infection. A sign with low sensitivity is often missing.
• Specificity means how often the sign is absent in people who do not have the infection. A sign with low specificity is common in uninfected people too, so seeing it says little on its own.

Most of the signs on the presentation's list run into one problem or the other, and some into both:

• Many infections are silent. A review of pinworm states that about 30 to 40% of infected children have no symptoms at all (Leung and colleagues, 2025). The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes chronic Strongyloides infection as generally without symptoms, and a review in Clinical Infectious Diseases notes that it can remain undetected for decades (Siddiqui and Berk, 2001). U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention adds that people with only a few hookworm, roundworm or whipworm worms usually have no symptoms.
• The common signs are common for other reasons. Teeth grinding, bed-wetting, bloating and dark circles are each frequent in the general population, with many recognised causes, as the sections below show.
• The body's response changes with exposure. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that symptoms and a raised blood eosinophil count are both more typical of a person meeting a parasite for the first time; people repeatedly exposed, such as long-term residents of an area where the parasite is common, are less likely to show either (Wendt and colleagues, 2025).

Night-Time Anal Itching and Pinworm

Of all the signs on the list, this one has the clearest biological basis. Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis) is a small white roundworm, about the size of a staple, and U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes it as the most common worm infection in the United States. It mostly affects school-aged and preschool children, people in institutions, and the family members and carers of infected people.

Why the itch happens at night

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention explains that while an infected person sleeps, female pinworms leave the bowel through the anus and lay their eggs on the surrounding skin, which causes itching. The eggs become infectious within two to three hours and spread on fingers, under fingernails, and on bedding, clothes and toys, where they can survive two to three weeks. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention also reports that some infected people have difficulty sleeping or restlessness, some report abdominal pain, and occasionally the worms move to the vaginal area and cause irritation. Repeated scratching can lead to bacterial skin infection.

How common the itch is, with and without pinworm

A review of pinworm literature found that it affects roughly 30% of children worldwide and up to 60% in some developing countries, and that nocturnal anal itching (pruritus ani) is the most common symptom among those who have symptoms (Leung and colleagues, 2025). But the itch is not specific. In a survey of 799 children aged 5 to 14 in Calabar, Nigeria, tested with adhesive-tape swabs (Otu-Bassey and colleagues, 2005):

• 60 children (7.5%) had pinworm eggs;
• 78.3% of the egg-positive children reported anal itching;
• 28.3% of the egg-negative children also reported anal itching.

Because far more children were uninfected than infected, most of the itching children in that survey did not have detectable pinworm. On its own, then, the itch raises the question rather than answering it.

How pinworm is actually confirmed

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that the most common test is the "tape test": clear adhesive tape pressed against the skin around the anus first thing in the morning, then examined under a microscope for eggs. The pinworm review reports that one tape test detects about 50% of infections and three tests on three different mornings detect about 90% (Leung and colleagues, 2025). Both sources state that stool samples usually miss pinworm, because the eggs are laid on the skin rather than passed in the stool, and U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes there is no blood test for pinworm. This is one case where the presentation's point about ordinary stool tests is correct, though for a reason specific to this worm. (Stool testing in general is covered on the sibling page Stool Tests for Parasites and Their Limits.)

On treatment, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists mebendazole, albendazole and pyrantel pamoate, each given as two doses two weeks apart, because the medicines kill worms but not eggs; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that repeat infections are common and that whole households are often treated together. Pinworm is generally a nuisance rather than a dangerous infection; U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists rare complications, including inflammation of the female genital tract and, in rare cases, an association with appendicitis.

Teeth Grinding

Teeth grinding during sleep (sleep bruxism) is very common in childhood. A scoping review of 144 publications on children and adolescents reported prevalence from 5% to 50%, depending on age and on how strictly bruxism was defined (Huynh and Fabbro, 2024). Recognised risk factors named in that review were behavioural problems, sleep disorders such as obstructive sleep apnoea, snoring and nightmares, and respiratory conditions such as allergies and mouth breathing. A separate narrative review notes that childhood sleep bruxism is typically self-limited and that the diagnosis usually rests on a parent hearing grinding noises, because polysomnography (an overnight sleep study) is rarely available (Leung and colleagues, 2024).

The idea that worms cause teeth grinding is old and widely repeated. When it has been measured, the results are mixed:

• An association in Egypt. A cross-sectional study in Alexandria compared 225 children whose stool tests showed an intestinal parasite with 225 whose tests did not. Parent-reported bruxism was more frequent in the infected group, with an adjusted odds ratio of 2.08 (95% confidence interval 1.32 to 3.29), and tooth wear and mild jaw-joint problems were also more common (Rabie and colleagues, 2026). The study used a convenience sample and parent reports, and did not separate pinworm from other parasites.
• An association in Iran. A small case-control study of 50 children with bruxism and 50 without found that intestinal parasites, finger-sucking and a family history of bruxism were each linked with bruxism; together, all the factors studied explained only about 22.6 to 30.1% of the variation (Talebian and colleagues, 2023).
• No independent link in Turkey. A cross-sectional study of 96 children found parasitic infections more common among the children who ground their teeth in the simple comparison, but once the factors were analysed together, the ones that remained linked with bruxism were learning, behaviour or anger problems, a stressful experience, snoring, and higher anxiety in the children and their mothers, not parasites (Yazıcıoğlu and Ray, 2022).

No randomised trial was found that treated worms and then measured whether grinding stopped. Studies of this design (comparing groups at one point in time) cannot show which came first, and both parasites and bruxism are more common in some living conditions than others. The research therefore supports a possible association in some populations, not teeth grinding as a sign that points to parasites.

Bed-Wetting

Night-time bed-wetting (nocturnal enuresis) is common in school-age children and has many recognised contributors. In a survey of 4,652 school children in southern Egypt, 18% wet the bed; family history was positive in 84.7% of them, and urinary tract infection, pinworm, constipation, high caffeine intake, deep sleep, larger families and exposure to violence or family problems were all statistically linked with it (Hamed and colleagues, 2017).

The pinworm link has been looked at directly in one research group's work in Nigeria:

• In the 2005 Calabar survey, 53.3% of pinworm-positive children wet the bed, compared with 36.4% of pinworm-negative children (Otu-Bassey and colleagues, 2005). Bed-wetting was therefore common in both groups, though more common with pinworm.
• A follow-up study of 632 children treated those with pinworm eggs or persistent anal itching with a single 400 mg dose of albendazole. Among 20 bed-wetting children whose pinworm cleared, 4 (20%) stopped wetting and 8 (40%) wet less often (Otu-Bassey and colleagues, 2011). The authors concluded that the results were suggestive of a role for pinworm. The study had no untreated comparison group, and bed-wetting often improves with age and time on its own, so the change cannot be credited to the medicine with confidence.

Overall, the evidence supports pinworm as one possible contributor in some children, based on small, uncontrolled studies, not bed-wetting as a reliable sign of parasites.

Dark Circles Under the Eyes

No study was found that measured dark circles under the eyes in people with and without a parasitic infection. A PubMed search combining dark circles or under-eye discoloration with parasites or worms returned no studies, and neither the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention pages nor the reviews used for this page list it as a sign of any parasite.

Dark circles are well studied in dermatology. A review in Dermatologic Surgery describes the main causes as extra pigment in the skin, thin and translucent lower-eyelid skin that lets the underlying muscle and blood vessels show through, and shadowing from skin laxity and the tear trough, with several causes usually combined in one person (Roh and Chung, 2009). A second review describes under-eye darkening as more common in darker skin types and as a possible end result of dermatitis, allergy, sleep disturbance, systemic illness or nutritional deficiency (Roberts, 2014).

The one indirect route worth noting is anaemia. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists blood and nutrient loss among the problems caused by heavy hookworm and other soil-transmitted worm infections. But that is a feature of heavy infection with a particular worm, not a sign that dark circles point to parasites. (Nutrient loss is covered on the sibling page Parasites Stealing Nutrients.)

A Blood Clue: Eosinophilia

The sign clinicians rely on most is not one a person can see. Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell that rises in response to allergies and to many parasitic worms. They are counted in an ordinary complete blood count with "differential". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines a raised level (peripheral eosinophilia) as 500 or more eosinophils per microlitre of blood: mild from 500, moderate from 1,500 and severe from 5,000 (Wendt and colleagues, 2025).

What a raised count can mean

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists many causes besides parasites: medicines and drug reactions, cancers, autoimmune disorders and allergic (atopic) conditions. Among travellers and migrants, worms are the leading cause. A review from the United States National Institutes of Health calls eosinophilia one of the most common laboratory abnormalities in returning travellers and identifies helminths (parasitic worms) as the main infectious cause worldwide (Moore and Nutman, 1998). Two clinic studies put numbers on it:

• At a post-travel clinic in Israel, 82 of 955 returning travellers (8.6%) had eosinophilia. About half of these (44) had schistosomiasis; among the other 38, a definite parasite was identified in only 23.7%, although most improved after an empirical (untested) course of albendazole (Meltzer and colleagues, 2008).
• At a tropical-medicine department in Hamburg, 154 of 6,618 travellers and migrants (2.3%) had eosinophilia. Of these, 46% had a worm infection, 40% had another diagnosis (34 other infections and 28 non-infectious causes) and 14% were never diagnosed. Worm infections were linked with higher eosinophil counts (median 981 versus 710 per microlitre), while total immunoglobulin E (IgE), another allergy-related blood marker, did not tell the groups apart (Salzer and colleagues, 2017).

What a normal count does not rule out

U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention writes that eosinophilia is "not a perfect metric". Several important parasites usually cause no eosinophilia at all, including the protozoa (single-celled parasites) behind amoebic dysentery and cryptosporidiosis, as well as alveolar echinococcosis. The count might be suppressed by a coexisting bacterial or viral infection, and U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that the count does not predict how severe a disease is. For Strongyloides, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that up to 75% of people with chronic infection have mild eosinophilia or a raised immunoglobulin E, which leaves a substantial share who do not (Wendt and colleagues, 2025).

Eosinophilia can also appear before a stool test can turn positive: U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention explains that eosinophils rise while young worms are still migrating through the body, before adults are producing eggs. For lung flukes (Paragonimus), acquired from raw or undercooked freshwater crabs or crayfish, a review notes that unexplained fever, cough, coughing blood and eosinophilia can resemble tuberculosis (Diaz, 2013).

Skin Tracks: Larva Currens and Creeping Eruption

A few skin signs are among the most specific findings in parasitology, although they are uncommon and were not on the presentation's list.

Larva currens (Strongyloides)

Larva currens ("racing larva") is a fast-moving, itchy, raised red line on the buttocks, perineum or thighs, caused by Strongyloides larvae re-entering the skin from the person's own bowel. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes it advancing as fast as 10 cm per hour. A French case series of seven people seen in Paris over 30 years called it a rare but pathognomonic sign of strongyloidiasis (meaning, when present, it identifies the disease); all seven had eosinophilia above 500 per microlitre, all were confirmed by stool tests and all were cured with ivermectin. The authors stressed that the sign is poorly described because it is unpredictable and fleeting (Tian and colleagues, 2023).

Strongyloides matters because of a documented hazard. In people given corticosteroids (steroid medicines such as prednisone) or other immune-suppressing treatment, a silent infection can turn into hyperinfection or disseminated disease. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that case-fatality rates approach 90%, and a review in Clinical Infectious Diseases reports mortality of up to 87% in hyperinfection (Siddiqui and Berk, 2001). The same review notes that a single conventional stool examination fails to detect larvae in up to 70% of cases. The French authors emphasised the value of considering strongyloidiasis before corticosteroids are given to migrants, expatriates and travellers from areas where it is common (Tian and colleagues, 2023). This is discussed further on the sibling page Parasites Misdiagnosed as Other Diseases.

Creeping eruption (animal hookworms)

Cutaneous larva migrans, or creeping eruption, is a winding, itchy rash that slowly moves through the skin, most often on the feet. It is caused by the larvae of dog and cat hookworms entering bare skin from soil or sand contaminated with animal faeces, typically in warm climates including the south-eastern United States. In humans these larvae cannot complete their life cycle, so the condition is self-limited; complications usually come from secondary bacterial infection (Maxfield and Crane, 2023).

Diarrhoea, Pain and Bloating After Travel

Abdominal pain, bloating and diarrhoea, the last items on the presentation's list, are real features of many parasitic infections. They are also among the commonest symptoms in medicine, so the research focus is on context: how long the symptoms last, and what the person was exposed to.

• Short episodes are rarely parasites. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's travel handbook states that most cases of travellers' diarrhoea are caused by bacteria or viruses and are short-lived and self-limited.
• Duration shifts the odds. For diarrhoea lasting more than 14 days after travel, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention writes that the likelihood of a parasitic infection rises with the length of symptoms, and that parasites may explain diarrhoea that continues after a bacterial cause was treated.
• Giardia is the most likely parasitic cause. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention names Giardia duodenalis as the parasite most likely to cause persistent diarrhoea, particularly with fatty stools, flatulence or upper-abdominal symptoms, and notes that untreated giardiasis can last months even in healthy people.
• Heavy worm loads cause more than gut symptoms. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists abdominal pain, diarrhoea, blood and protein or nutrient loss, rectal prolapse, and slowed physical and cognitive growth in children among the effects of heavy soil-transmitted worm infections, while light infections usually cause no symptoms.
• Persistent symptoms have non-parasite causes too. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists, besides ongoing infection, a previously undiagnosed bowel disease unmasked by the infection and post-infectious problems that continue after the organism is gone.

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention handbook's diagnostic approach starts from the travel and exposure history (raw freshwater fish or crayfish, bare feet on soil, freshwater swimming, insect bites), a careful skin examination and a blood count with differential, which matches the presentation's call to combine symptoms with exposure history and testing (Wendt and colleagues, 2025).

How the Claim Compares With the Research

Supported

• Parasite symptoms are non-specific and infections are often missed. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states this directly, and silent infection is documented for pinworm (30 to 40% without symptoms), chronic Strongyloides and light worm infections.
• Night-time anal itching in children is linked with pinworm. It is the most common symptom of pinworm, and the tape test, not a stool test, is how it is confirmed.
• Restlessness and poor sleep. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists difficulty sleeping and restlessness among pinworm symptoms in some people.
• Exposure history plus testing. The presentation's call to combine symptoms, exposure history and tests matches the approach in the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention travel handbook.

Supported only in part

• Teeth grinding. Two studies (Egypt, Iran) found an association with intestinal parasites; a third (Turkey) found that it disappeared once stress, behaviour and snoring were accounted for. No treatment trial was found, and bruxism affects up to half of children for many reasons.
• Bed-wetting. Associated with pinworm in Nigerian and Egyptian surveys, and partly resolved after deworming in one uncontrolled study of 20 children; bed-wetting was also common in uninfected children.
• Abdominal pain, bloating and diarrhoea. Real features of parasitic infection, but most short episodes have bacterial or viral causes; published guidance ties the parasite question to duration and exposure.
• "Overlooked." True in the sense that signs are often absent or non-specific. Published studies report the opposite problem as well: in uninfected children, itching (28.3%) and bed-wetting (36.4%) were common, so a sign-based approach also flags many people who have no parasite.

No research found

• Dark circles under the eyes. No study was found linking under-eye discoloration to parasitic infection. Dermatology reviews attribute it to pigment, thin eyelid skin, shadowing, allergy and sleep loss.

Not on the list, but stronger signs

• The findings with the best-documented links to parasites are a raised eosinophil count in someone with a relevant exposure, larva currens (specific for Strongyloides) and creeping eruption (animal hookworm). Even eosinophilia has many non-parasite causes and is absent in several important infections.

What Is Not Known

• Whether treating worms stops teeth grinding. No randomised or even uncontrolled treatment study of bruxism after deworming was found.
• Whether pinworm causes bed-wetting. The only treatment data come from one small study without a comparison group; a controlled trial has not been reported.
• How many under-eye, mood or fatigue complaints, if any, are due to parasites. No study measuring these signs against confirmed infection status was found for dark circles; the mood and fatigue claims are discussed on a sibling page.
• How the signs perform in wealthy countries. The bruxism and bed-wetting studies come from Egypt, Iran, Turkey and Nigeria; how often these signs point to parasites in places where infection is rarer is unknown, and in lower-prevalence settings a non-specific sign is even more likely to have another cause.
• Why some people with eosinophilia never get a diagnosis. In the Hamburg series 14% were never diagnosed; in the Israeli series most travellers without schistosomiasis had no parasite identified, even though many improved after albendazole.

Decisions about testing and antiparasitic medicines belong with a clinician.

Connections

• Cancer and Parasites
• Parasites Misdiagnosed as Other Diseases
• Stool Tests for Parasites and Their Limits
• Parasites, Mood and the Nervous System
• Parasites Stealing Nutrients
• Parasites
• Pinworm
• Pinworm: Anal Itching and Sleep Disturbance
• Strongyloides
• Hookworm
• Giardia
• Paragonimus Westermani
• Schistosoma
• Complete Blood Count
• Hypereosinophilic Syndrome
• TMJ Disorder

Key Research Papers

1. Leung AKC, Lam JM, Barankin B, Wong AHC, Leong KF, Hon KL. Pinworm (Enterobius Vermicularis) Infestation: An Updated Review. Current Pediatric Reviews. 2025;21(4):333-347. PubMed PMID: 38288810
2. Otu-Bassey IB, Ejezie GC, Epoke J, Useh MF. Enterobiasis and its relationship with anal itching and enuresis among school-age children in Calabar, Nigeria. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology. 2005;99(6):611-616. PubMed PMID: 16156975
3. Otu-Bassey IB, Useh MF, Alaribe AA. The post-treatment effects of enterobiasis on the occurrence of enuresis among children in Calabar, Nigeria. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 2011;4(4):315-319. PubMed PMID: 21771477
4. Hamed A, Yousf F, Hussein MM. Prevalence of nocturnal enuresis and related risk factors in school-age children in Egypt: an epidemiological study. World Journal of Urology. 2017;35(3):459-465. PubMed PMID: 27306687
5. Huynh N, Fabbro CD. Sleep bruxism in children and adolescents-A scoping review. Journal of Oral Rehabilitation. 2024;51(1):103-109. PubMed PMID: 37743603
6. Leung AKC, Wong AHC, Lam JM, Hon KL. Sleep Bruxism in Children: A Narrative Review. Current Pediatric Reviews. 2024;21(1):40-50. PubMed PMID: 37724678
7. Rabie R, ELkashlan M, Saleh S. Intestinal parasitic infections and their association with bruxism, tooth wear, and temporomandibular disorders in children in rural Egypt: a cross-sectional study. BMC Oral Health. 2026;26(1):1023. PubMed PMID: 42243845
8. Talebian A, Sharif MR, Gilasi HR, Ghafeli Bidgoli M, Masoudi Alavi N. Risk factors of bruxism in children and adolescents: A case-control study. Iranian Journal of Child Neurology. 2023;17(3):81-87. PubMed PMID: 37637786
9. Yazıcıoğlu İ, Ray PÇ. Evaluation of Anxiety Levels in Children and Their Mothers and Appearance of Sleep Bruxism in Turkish Children and Associated Risk Factors: A Cross-Sectional Study. Journal of Oral and Facial Pain and Headache. 2022;36(2):147-154. PubMed PMID: 35943325
10. Roh MR, Chung KY. Infraorbital dark circles: definition, causes, and treatment options. Dermatologic Surgery. 2009;35(8):1163-1171. PubMed PMID: 19469797
11. Roberts WE. Periorbital hyperpigmentation: review of etiology, medical evaluation, and aesthetic treatment. Journal of Drugs in Dermatology. 2014;13(4):472-482. PubMed PMID: 24719068
12. Wendt EM, Kamb ML, Montgomery SP. Post-Travel Parasitic Disease Including Evaluation of Eosinophilia. In: CDC Yellow Book, 2026 edition: Health Information for International Travel. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US). 2025. PubMed PMID: 41818574
13. Moore TA, Nutman TB. Eosinophilia in the returning traveler. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 1998;12(2):503-521. PubMed PMID: 9658256
14. Meltzer E, Percik R, Shatzkes J, Sidi Y, Schwartz E. Eosinophilia among returning travelers: a practical approach. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2008;78(5):702-709. PubMed PMID: 18458300
15. Salzer HJF, Rolling T, Vinnemeier CD, Tannich E, Schmiedel S, Addo MM, Cramer JP. Helminthic infections in returning travelers and migrants with eosinophilia: Diagnostic value of medical history, eosinophil count and IgE. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2017;20:49-55. PubMed PMID: 28882532
16. Diaz JH. Paragonimiasis acquired in the United States: native and nonnative species. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2013;26(3):493-504. PubMed PMID: 23824370
17. Tian Y, Monsel G, Paris L, Danis M, Caumes E. Larva Currens: Report of Seven Cases and Literature Review. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2023;108(2):340-345. PubMed PMID: 36535252
18. Siddiqui AA, Berk SL. Diagnosis of Strongyloides stercoralis infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2001;33(7):1040-1047. PubMed PMID: 11528578
19. Maxfield L, Crane JS. Cutaneous Larva Migrans. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. 2023. PubMed PMID: 29939528

PubMed Topic Searches

1. PubMed: Pinworm, anal itching and the tape test
2. PubMed: Teeth grinding and intestinal parasites in children
3. PubMed: Bed-wetting and pinworm
4. PubMed: Eosinophilia in returning travellers
5. PubMed: Larva currens and Strongyloides

Other Sources

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About Pinworm. cdc.gov
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clinical Overview of Pinworm. cdc.gov
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Yellow Book: Post-Travel Parasitic Disease. cdc.gov
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Yellow Book: Post-Travel Diarrhea. cdc.gov
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clinical Overview of Strongyloides. cdc.gov
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About Soil-Transmitted Helminths. cdc.gov

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