Clozapine: The Medicine for Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia

Clozapine is an antipsychotic tablet with an unusual story. It was introduced in Europe, nearly abandoned in 1975 after a cluster of deaths from a collapse in white blood cells, and brought back in the United States more than a decade later because one trial showed it helped people whom every other antipsychotic had failed. Today it is the only medicine approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment-resistant schizophrenia and for reducing the risk of recurrent suicidal behaviour in schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Its label also opens with a boxed warning, the strongest kind of warning a United States drug label can carry, covering five separate risks, and for decades it could only be dispensed alongside regular blood tests reported to a national monitoring program. That program ended in February 2025.

This page explains what clozapine is, where it came from, what “treatment-resistant” means, what the key trials and large population studies found, what the current label says about its risks and blood-count monitoring, why reviews describe it as underused, and what is still unknown. The Schizophrenia page covers the illness itself and the other antipsychotic medicines.

Table of Contents

  1. What Clozapine Is
  2. A Medicine That Was Nearly Lost
  3. What Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia Means
  4. The 1988 Trial That Brought It Back
  5. What Later Reviews of the Trials Found
  6. Suicidal Behaviour and the InterSePT Trial
  7. Long-Term Death Rates in Population Studies
  8. The Boxed Warning and Its Five Risks
  9. Low Neutrophil Counts and Blood-Test Monitoring
  10. The End of the National Monitoring Program in 2025
  11. Constipation and a Slowed Gut
  12. Drooling, Weight and Blood Sugar
  13. Smoking, Caffeine and the CYP1A2 Enzyme
  14. What Is Not Known
  15. Key Research Papers
  16. Connections
  17. Featured Videos

What Clozapine Is

Clozapine is a prescription antipsychotic, taken by mouth as a tablet, an orally disintegrating tablet or a liquid suspension. It is often called the first “atypical” antipsychotic, a term that originally meant it calmed psychosis without the stiffness, tremor and abnormal movements that older antipsychotics caused. A 1993 analysis in the New England Journal of Medicine described it as “not associated with the development of acute extrapyramidal symptoms or tardive dyskinesia,” the movement problems typical of the older drugs.

The current label lists two uses:

How clozapine works is not settled. The label states plainly that “the mechanism of action of clozapine is unknown.” It has been proposed that its effect comes from blocking the dopamine D2 and serotonin 5-HT2A receptors, and the label lists strong binding to many other receptors as well, including histamine, adrenaline-type (adrenergic), acetylcholine-type (muscarinic) and further serotonin and dopamine receptors. Several of its side effects follow from this broad profile: the acetylcholine-blocking action is the reason the label gives for its effects on the gut. Unlike many antipsychotics, the label states that clozapine causes little or no rise in the hormone prolactin.

On dosing, the label states that treatment starts at 12.5 milligrams once or twice a day and rises slowly, in steps of 25 to 50 milligrams a day, toward a target of 300 to 450 milligrams a day in divided doses by the end of two weeks, with a maximum of 900 milligrams a day. The slow start exists because of the heart-rate and blood-pressure warning described later. The label gives the average elimination half-life as about 12 hours at steady state, with a wide range of 4 to 66 hours.

A Medicine That Was Nearly Lost

Clozapine was discovered and developed in Europe. A 2024 history in the Harvard Review of Psychiatry, built partly on oral histories from clinicians, researchers and a patient’s family member, describes how anecdotal reports of strong effects and the absence of movement side effects made it a promising therapy in the United States during the early 1970s.

Then came Finland. Finnish doctors reported in 1975, and in a fuller paper in 1977, that within six months of clozapine’s introduction there, 17 cases of neutropenia or agranulocytosis (an almost complete loss of the white cells called granulocytes) had been recorded among about 3,000 treated patients. Agranulocytosis was fatal in eight. The authors estimated the risk of agranulocytosis at “at least 0.5%,” noting that more cases might have been missed as ordinary infections. The 2024 history states that these fatal cases “nearly ended the drug’s development.” A 2007 history in History of Psychiatry calls the episode the “1975 Finnish agranulocytosis scare.”

The same 2024 account describes United States clinicians who, convinced of the benefit to patients, pushed for clozapine to be made available case by case on a humanitarian basis, which eventually helped bring the drug to FDA approval in 1989. The trial at the centre of that approval is described in the next sections.

When it reached the United States market in February 1990, clozapine came with conditions: it was sold only through a special surveillance system in which a weekly white-cell count was required before a patient could receive a supply. The 2007 history describes that arrival as marked by controversy over its high cost, which it attributes in large part to clozapine being the first new antipsychotic in over a decade and to the need for comprehensive safety monitoring within a decentralised health system. Data from that system for February 1990 to April 1991 later became the largest early study of the blood risk (see Low Neutrophil Counts).

What Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia Means

Most people with schizophrenia improve to some degree on antipsychotic medicines. A minority do not. A 2025 editorial puts the share with treatment-refractory symptoms at 20% to 40% of people with schizophrenia, and describes the usual definition as no adequate response to at least two sequential, adequate trials of antipsychotics.

“Adequate” turns out to be the hard part. In 2017, an international group of researchers, the Treatment Response and Resistance in Psychosis (TRRIP) Working Group, reviewed 42 randomised trials in treatment-resistant schizophrenia and found that half of them (21 studies) gave no operational definition of treatment resistance at all. Among the rest, definitions varied widely in symptom severity, length of earlier treatment and dose thresholds; only two studies used the same criteria. The group then agreed on minimum criteria:

The adherence point matters because a medicine that was not taken cannot be said to have failed. The 1988 trial that established clozapine used a stricter definition still: failure of at least three antipsychotics from at least two chemical classes in the previous five years, with no period of good functioning, followed by a six-week trial of haloperidol to confirm the lack of response.

The 1988 Trial That Brought It Back

The study that revived clozapine was led by John Kane and published in the Archives of General Psychiatry in 1988. It took people with schizophrenia who had failed at least three different antipsychotics and first gave them six weeks of single-blind haloperidol (average dose 61 milligrams a day). Those who remained unimproved were randomly assigned, with neither patients nor raters knowing which drug was given, to clozapine (up to 900 milligrams a day) or chlorpromazine (up to 1,800 milligrams a day) for six weeks.

Two hundred sixty-eight patients entered the double-blind comparison. The findings:

The authors still concluded that, because of the apparently higher comparative risk, clozapine use belonged with selected treatment-resistant patients. That restriction is still the first line of the label today.

What Later Reviews of the Trials Found

Later reviews pooled the trials that followed. They do not all agree, and the disagreement is itself one of the main facts about clozapine.

So the randomised-trial evidence on clozapine’s edge over other second-generation drugs is weaker than its reputation, while the observational evidence on hospital admission, staying on treatment and, below, survival is consistently in its favour. Observational studies cannot fully rule out differences between the people who receive each drug, which is one reason the debate continues.

Suicidal Behaviour and the InterSePT Trial

Suicide is one of the gravest risks in schizophrenia. The InterSePT investigators wrote that about 50% of people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder attempt suicide and about 10% die by suicide.

The International Suicide Prevention Trial (InterSePT), published in 2003, randomly assigned 980 people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder who were judged at high risk because of earlier suicide attempts or current suicidal thoughts to clozapine or olanzapine for two years. Only 26.8% were treatment-resistant. To keep clinical contact equal, everyone was seen weekly for six months and then every two weeks. Treating clinicians knew which drug each patient took, but the raters who decided whether an event had happened, including an independent suicide monitoring board, did not. The results:

The label notes that the trial was open-label, with flexible doses of 200 to 900 milligrams a day of clozapine and 5 to 20 milligrams a day of olanzapine, and that the olanzapine group used significantly more additional psychiatric medicines. This trial is the basis of clozapine’s second labelled use.

Long-Term Death Rates in Population Studies

Given clozapine’s serious side effects, one might expect people taking it to die sooner. Large population studies have mostly found the opposite.

These are observational studies. People who stay on clozapine for years may differ from those who stop, for example in how closely they are followed by clinics, and the studies cannot prove that clozapine itself caused the lower death rates. The 2019 meta-analysis authors concluded that the findings, combined with clozapine’s known effects, give reason to re-evaluate hesitancy to prescribe it.

The Boxed Warning and Its Five Risks

The current label opens with a boxed warning covering five risks. Each is summarised here as the label states it.

  1. Severe neutropenia. Clozapine has caused severe neutropenia (an absolute neutrophil count (ANC) below 500 per microlitre), which raises the risk of serious and potentially fatal infections. The label calls for a baseline absolute neutrophil count before starting. The next section covers this in detail.
  2. Orthostatic hypotension, bradycardia and syncope. A sudden fall in blood pressure on standing, a slow heart rate, fainting and cardiac arrest have occurred. The label states the risk is highest during the first dose increases, especially when the dose is raised quickly, and that these reactions can occur with the first dose, at doses as low as 12.5 milligrams, and when restarting after even a brief break in treatment. It states that these reactions can be fatal and describes the pattern as consistent with a nerve-reflex slowing of the heart (neurally mediated reflex bradycardia). The slow starting schedule exists because of this warning.
  3. Seizures. The label estimates a cumulative one-year incidence of about 5%, based on one or more seizures in 61 of 1,743 people (a crude rate of 3.5%) during testing before United States marketing. The risk is dose-related. Because of the risk of sudden loss of consciousness, the label lists driving, operating complex machinery, swimming and climbing as activities of concern.
  4. Myocarditis, pericarditis and cardiomyopathy. Inflammation of the heart muscle or its lining, and weakening of the heart muscle, have occurred and can be fatal. The label states that myocarditis and pericarditis most often appear within the first two months and cardiomyopathy usually after eight weeks, although all three can occur at any time. It lists chest pain, a fast heartbeat, palpitations, breathlessness, fever, flu-like symptoms, low blood pressure or changes on the heart tracing (electrocardiogram) as signs that raise the possibility, and states that people who had clozapine-related myocarditis or cardiomyopathy are generally not given clozapine again.
  5. Increased mortality in elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis. This warning applies to all antipsychotics. The label reports that in 17 placebo-controlled trials, mostly of atypical antipsychotics, older people with dementia-related psychosis had 1.6 to 1.7 times the risk of death on the drug, about 4.5% against 2.6% over a typical ten-week trial, mostly from heart or infection-related causes. Clozapine is not approved for dementia-related psychosis.

The heart-muscle warning has been studied closely. A 2018 systematic review of 82 published case reports of clozapine-induced myocarditis found a median age of 30 and a median dose of 250 milligrams a day at presentation. Symptoms began within the first month in 87% of cases. Breathlessness and fever were each present in 67% and a fast heartbeat in 58%. Heart-damage markers in the blood were raised in 87% of the 54 cases that reported them. The reviewers noted that the symptoms are non-specific, which makes the diagnosis difficult. In a 2021 New Zealand study of people starting clozapine in the Auckland region, the incidence over two years was 3.8% for myocarditis and 1.3% for cardiomyopathy.

The label also carries warnings outside the box, including the gut hypomotility described below, eosinophilia (a rise in a type of white cell, seen in about 1% of trial patients), QT prolongation (a heart-rhythm change), metabolic changes, falls, and fever.

Low Neutrophil Counts and Blood-Test Monitoring

Neutrophils are the most common white blood cells and the body’s first defence against bacteria. When they fall very low, ordinary infections can become dangerous. This is the risk that nearly ended clozapine and still shapes how it is used. The general Leukopenia page covers low white-cell counts from all causes.

How often it happens

The label adds that the risk of severe neutropenia appears greatest during the first 18 weeks, that it is not dose-dependent, and that the mechanism is unknown.

The monitoring schedule in the current label

The label calls for a baseline absolute neutrophil count before treatment and does not support starting clozapine when that count is below 1,500 per microlitre. For people with a count in the normal range, the label’s testing schedule is:

The label sets out what happens at lower counts. Mild neutropenia (1,000 to 1,499 per microlitre): treatment continues with tests three times a week. Moderate neutropenia (500 to 999): treatment is interrupted, a blood specialist (haematologist) consultation is recommended, and testing is daily. Severe neutropenia (below 500): treatment is discontinued, with daily testing, and the label states that restarting is generally not done, although some people who recovered have been restarted when the benefits were judged to outweigh the risks. All first reports of a count below 1,500 are confirmed with a repeat test within 24 hours. For anyone who develops a temperature of 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) or higher, the label states that clozapine is interrupted and a neutrophil count is taken. Fever and other signs of infection in someone taking clozapine are signs that clinics treat as urgent.

Benign ethnic neutropenia

Some people naturally have lower neutrophil counts without any illness. The label calls this Benign Ethnic Neutropenia, also known as Duffy-null associated neutrophil count. The label states that people with this pattern “generally have lower baseline neutrophil counts but they are not at higher risk for developing infections, and they are not at increased risk for developing clozapine-induced neutropenia.” For them, the label calls for at least two baseline counts and uses a lower threshold: starting is not supported below 1,000 per microlitre, and a separate table with lower cut-offs governs interruptions. Without this separate table, people with naturally low counts would be excluded from clozapine or have it stopped for counts that are normal for them. A 2025 review lists understanding differences in clozapine metabolism across genetic ancestry groups among the strategies for using clozapine more safely.

The End of the National Monitoring Program in 2025

From 1990, every United States clozapine prescription was tied to blood-count reporting. Individual makers first ran separate patient registries. In September 2015 the FDA approved a single shared program for all clozapine products, the Clozapine Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS). Under it, prescribers and pharmacies had to be certified, and a pharmacy could not dispense clozapine until the patient’s latest neutrophil count had been reported.

The FDA began re-examining the program in 2023, funded and ran studies on clozapine use, monitoring and neutropenia, and held an advisory committee meeting on November 19, 2024. On February 24, 2025, the FDA announced that it no longer expected prescribers, pharmacies and patients to take part in the program or to report neutrophil test results before a pharmacy dispenses clozapine. The agency stated that it “still recommends that prescribers monitor patients’ ANC according to the monitoring frequencies described in the prescribing information,” that the severe-neutropenia information stays in the label including the boxed warning, and that eliminating the program was expected to reduce the burden on the health system and improve access. The clozapine tablet label checked for this page (effective May 2026) contains the monitoring tables above and no longer mentions the program.

What reviews say about underuse

A 2025 nursing editorial describes clozapine as the only evidence-based treatment for treatment-refractory schizophrenia and states that it “has long remained underutilized” partly because of administrative barriers such as the monitoring program, which it expects the elimination to reduce.

A 2025 review in Focus, titled a “call to action” for starting clozapine, makes several further points:

The Schizophrenia page summarises the same regulatory change in brief.

Constipation and a Slowed Gut

Constipation sounds minor, but with clozapine it is one of the most dangerous side effects. The label explains that clozapine’s strong acetylcholine-blocking action slows the movement of the gut (gastrointestinal hypomotility). Reported effects range from constipation to paralytic ileus, where the bowel stops moving altogether, and the label lists faecal impaction, megacolon, and intestinal obstruction, ischaemia, perforation and necrosis among the complications. The label states that these have led to hospital admission, surgery and death, that the risk is higher with other acetylcholine-blocking medicines, and that a person’s own sense of being constipated may not reflect how slow the gut has become.

Nausea, vomiting, a swollen or painful abdomen, and a change in bowel habit are the signs the label lists for complications; abdominal swelling and vomiting in someone taking clozapine are signs hospitals treat as urgent. The Constipation page covers constipation more generally.

Drooling, Weight and Blood Sugar

Hypersalivation

Unlike most acetylcholine-blocking drugs, which dry the mouth, clozapine commonly causes excess saliva and drooling. In the label’s pooled table, “salivation” was reported by 31% of 842 people on clozapine, and in the 1988 trial hypersalivation was reported by 13% on clozapine against 1% on chlorpromazine. A 2019 meta-analysis noted that it can lead to aspiration pneumonia (saliva entering the lungs) as well as embarrassment and low self-esteem, and that it can lead people to stop the medicine. Across 19 randomised trials, several medicines improved it, including propantheline, diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine and the benzamide group of drugs, but the trials were of poor quality, and propantheline raised the rate of constipation. The reviewers found that diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine and the benzamides had the best supporting evidence with the fewest reported adverse events.

Weight, blood sugar and blood fats

The label groups clozapine with the atypical antipsychotics associated with high blood sugar, abnormal blood fats and weight gain, which can raise the risk of heart disease and stroke. It states that high blood sugar, in some cases extreme and associated with ketoacidosis, coma or death, has been reported with atypical antipsychotics including clozapine, and it calls for regular glucose monitoring in people with diabetes or its risk factors. The 2019 cohort meta-analysis put numbers on the comparison with other second-generation antipsychotics: clozapine was associated with an extra 1.70 kilograms of body weight on average, a higher body mass index (by 0.96), and a higher risk of type 2 diabetes (risk ratio 1.777; number needed to harm 27). The Finnish 20-year study, by contrast, found that long-term antipsychotic use overall was not associated with more hospital admissions for physical illness, and clozapine had the lowest cardiovascular death rate of the drugs studied.

Other common effects

The label’s most commonly reported adverse reactions (5% or more) include drowsiness and sedation (39% in its pooled table), dizziness, headache, tremor, a fast heart rate (25%), low blood pressure, fainting, sweating, dry mouth, visual disturbances, nausea and fever.

Smoking, Caffeine and the CYP1A2 Enzyme

The label states that clozapine is almost completely broken down before it leaves the body and that it is a substrate for many cytochrome P450 liver enzymes, in particular cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2), CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. Anything that speeds up or slows down that enzyme changes how much clozapine stays in the blood, sometimes a great deal. The Caffeine Sensitivity and CYP1A2 page explains the enzyme in more detail.

The label also lists strong CYP3A4 inducers (carbamazepine, phenytoin, St. John’s wort and rifampin), which can lower clozapine levels and whose combined use with clozapine the label does not support, and several CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 inhibitors that can raise levels. Fatal overdoses, the label states, have generally involved doses above 2,500 milligrams.

What Is Not Known

Decisions about starting, adjusting or stopping clozapine belong with a prescribing clinician, because the risks above depend on dose, timing, other medicines and the person’s own blood counts.

Key Research Papers

  1. Idänpään-Heikkilä J, Alhava E, Olkinuora M, Palva IP. Agranulocytosis during treatment with chlozapine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1977;11(3):193-8. PubMed PMID: 856603
  2. Kane J, Honigfeld G, Singer J, Meltzer H. Clozapine for the treatment-resistant schizophrenic. A double-blind comparison with chlorpromazine. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45(9):789-96. PubMed PMID: 3046553
  3. Alvir JM, Lieberman JA, Safferman AZ, Schwimmer JL, Schaaf JA. Clozapine-induced agranulocytosis. Incidence and risk factors in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1993;329(3):162-7. PubMed PMID: 8515788
  4. Meltzer HY, Alphs L, Green AI, Altamura AC, Anand R, Bertoldi A, et al. Clozapine treatment for suicidality in schizophrenia: International Suicide Prevention Trial (InterSePT). Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60(1):82-91. PubMed PMID: 12511175
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  6. Palmer SE, McLean RM, Ellis PM, Harrison-Woolrych M. Life-threatening clozapine-induced gastrointestinal hypomotility: an analysis of 102 cases. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(5):759-68. PubMed PMID: 18452342
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  8. Tsuda Y, Saruwatari J, Yasui-Furukori N. Meta-analysis: the effects of smoking on the disposition of two commonly used antipsychotic agents, olanzapine and clozapine. BMJ Open. 2014;4(3):e004216. PubMed PMID: 24595134
  9. Samara MT, Dold M, Gianatsi M, Nikolakopoulou A, Helfer B, Salanti G, et al. Efficacy, Acceptability, and Tolerability of Antipsychotics in Treatment-Resistant Schizophrenia: A Network Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(3):199-210. PubMed PMID: 26842482
  10. Shirazi A, Stubbs B, Gomez L, Moore S, Gaughran F, Flanagan RJ, et al. Prevalence and Predictors of Clozapine-Associated Constipation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17(6):863. PubMed PMID: 27271593
  11. Siskind D, McCartney L, Goldschlager R, Kisely S. Clozapine v. first- and second-generation antipsychotics in treatment-refractory schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2016;209(5):385-392. PubMed PMID: 27388573
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  13. Every-Palmer S, Ellis PM, Nowitz M, Stanley J, Grant E, Huthwaite M, et al. The Porirua Protocol in the Treatment of Clozapine-Induced Gastrointestinal Hypomotility and Constipation: A Pre- and Post-Treatment Study. CNS Drugs. 2017;31(1):75-85. PubMed PMID: 27826741
  14. Bellissima BL, Tingle MD, Cicović A, Alawami M, Kenedi C. A systematic review of clozapine-induced myocarditis. Int J Cardiol. 2018;259:122-129. PubMed PMID: 29579587
  15. Myles N, Myles H, Xia S, Large M, Kisely S, Galletly C, et al. Meta-analysis examining the epidemiology of clozapine-associated neutropenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2018;138(2):101-109. PubMed PMID: 29786829
  16. Chen SY, Ravindran G, Zhang Q, Kisely S, Siskind D. Treatment Strategies for Clozapine-Induced Sialorrhea: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. CNS Drugs. 2019;33(3):225-238. PubMed PMID: 30758782
  17. Vermeulen JM, van Rooijen G, van de Kerkhof MPJ, Sutterland AL, Correll CU, de Haan L. Clozapine and Long-Term Mortality Risk in Patients With Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Studies Lasting 1.1-12.5 Years. Schizophr Bull. 2019;45(2):315-329. PubMed PMID: 29697804
  18. Masuda T, Misawa F, Takase M, Kane JM, Correll CU. Association With Hospitalization and All-Cause Discontinuation Among Patients With Schizophrenia on Clozapine vs Other Oral Second-Generation Antipsychotics: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Cohort Studies. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(10):1052-1062. PubMed PMID: 31365048
  19. Taipale H, Tanskanen A, Mehtälä J, Vattulainen P, Correll CU, Tiihonen J. 20-year follow-up study of physical morbidity and mortality in relationship to antipsychotic treatment in a nationwide cohort of 62,250 patients with schizophrenia (FIN20). World Psychiatry. 2020;19(1):61-68. PubMed PMID: 31922669
  20. Bellissima BL, Vara A, Helsby N, Garavan F, Tingle MD. Incidence and investigation of potential risk-factors for clozapine-associated myocarditis and cardiomyopathy in a New Zealand cohort. Psychiatry Res. 2021;299:113873. PubMed PMID: 33799127
  21. Poudel R, Lerner B. The Tarnished Legacy of a Wonder Drug: Revisiting the Complicated History of Clozapine. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2024;32(1):40-46. PubMed PMID: 38181102
  22. Kameg B. Elimination of the clozapine risk evaluation and mitigation strategy (REMS) - Improving access to care for those with treatment-refractory schizophrenia. Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2025;55:151862. PubMed PMID: 40204374
  23. Leung JG, Cotes RO. A Call to Action for Starting Clozapine: Increasing Clozapine Use and Safety in a Post-REMS Era. Focus (Am Psychiatr Publ). 2025;23(4):375-388. PubMed PMID: 41613742

Other Sources

  1. DailyMed, National Library of Medicine. Clozapine tablets: full prescribing information, including the boxed warning, the absolute neutrophil count monitoring tables (Tables 1 and 2), drug interactions and clinical studies (generic tablet label, version effective May 2026). DailyMed label
  2. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Information on Clozapine Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (latest update February 24, 2025). FDA clozapine page

PubMed Topic Searches

  1. clozapine treatment-resistant schizophrenia meta-analysis
  2. clozapine neutropenia monitoring
  3. clozapine myocarditis
  4. clozapine gastrointestinal hypomotility
  5. clozapine mortality cohort

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