Pistachios: Protein and Fiber

Table of Contents

1. Protein and Fiber by the Ounce
2. How Protein Quality Is Scored
3. The Pistachio Scores: Raw and Roasted
4. Where “Complete Protein” Comes From
5. The Amino Acid Pattern
6. The Fiber: How Much and What Kind
7. Satiety and Body Weight Trials
8. Post-Meal Blood Sugar
9. Gut Microbes
10. Plant Protein and Fiber in Large Studies
11. What Is Not Known
12. Who the Research Raises Concerns For
13. Connections
14. Key Research Papers
15. Featured Videos

Protein and Fiber by the Ounce

The figures below come from the USDA FoodData Central database (SR Legacy entries), converted from the per-100-gram values to a one-ounce (28.35 g) portion. Pistachio figures are for raw kernels and dry-roasted kernels without added salt. One ounce is roughly 49 shelled pistachio kernels.

Three things stand out in the table.

• Pistachios and almonds share the top of the tree-nut list. Per ounce, almonds edge pistachios slightly on both protein and fiber in the USDA data; the differences are a few tenths of a gram, smaller than normal variation between harvests and cultivars. The claim sometimes seen that pistachios are “the highest-protein nut” is not what the USDA table shows. Peanuts, which are botanically a legume, carry more protein than any tree nut.
• Pistachios are among the lower-calorie nuts. Because a pistachio has less fat than a pecan or macadamia, each calorie comes with more protein: about 3.6 grams per 100 calories, against roughly 1 to 1.3 grams for pecans and macadamias. Reviews of pistachio composition describe this lower fat and energy content as one of the nut's distinguishing features (Bulló and colleagues, 2015).
• Roasting changes the per-ounce numbers only slightly. Dry roasting drives off water, so roasted kernels are a little more concentrated per gram. As the next sections show, roasting does change how digestible the protein is — and that is not visible in a composition table at all.

For the full mineral, vitamin and carotenoid panel, see the pistachio nutrient profile.

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How Protein Quality Is Scored

Grams of protein say how much there is. They do not say how useful it is. Protein is built from 20 amino acids, and nine of them are indispensable (also called essential): the body cannot make them and has to get them from food. A protein's quality depends on two things — whether it supplies those nine in the proportions the body needs, and how much of it is actually digested and absorbed rather than passing through.

Two scoring systems are in use. Both compare a food's amino acid pattern with a reference pattern set by an expert panel, find the indispensable amino acid that falls furthest short (the limiting amino acid), and correct for digestibility. They differ in how digestibility is measured.

• PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility-Corrected Amino Acid Score) is the older method, adopted in 1991. It corrects for digestibility using a single figure for the whole protein, measured across the entire gut (from what remains in the stool). Its scores are capped at 100, so foods above that line all look the same.
• DIAAS (Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score) is the method an expert consultation of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations recommended in 2013 (FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 92). It measures the digestibility of each indispensable amino acid separately, at the end of the small intestine (the ileum), before bacteria in the colon can break amino acids down and distort the reading. Scores are not capped.

The cut-offs most often quoted for DIAAS come from that same FAO report, which gives them as examples: 75 to 99 for a “good” or “source” protein, 100 or more for an “excellent” or “high” quality protein, and no protein claim below about 75. A score is always tied to an age group, because children's reference patterns call for more of some amino acids than adults' do.

Measuring digestibility at the end of the small intestine in people requires a tube or an ileostomy, so most DIAAS values are measured in growing pigs, whose digestion of protein is regarded as a reasonable model of the human gut, or in rats.

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The Pistachio Scores: Raw and Roasted

The only direct measurement of pistachio protein quality in the research pack behind this page comes from Bailey and Stein at the University of Illinois, published in the Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture in 2020. The work was done in pigs: the researchers measured the standardized ileal digestibility of each amino acid from raw and from roasted pistachios, then calculated both scores. Their stated hypothesis was that both forms would score above 75, the “good source” line.

What the abstract reports, in plain terms:

• Both forms cleared the “good source” line on DIAAS, at 86 for raw and 83 for roasted, for the age group that covers older children and adults. Neither reached 100, the “excellent” line.
• Roasting reduced digestibility. The ileal digestibility of every indispensable amino acid except arginine and phenylalanine was lower in roasted than in raw pistachios. That is why roasted pistachios scored slightly lower on DIAAS. The authors concluded that “processing conditions associated with roasting may decrease the digestibility” of the amino acids.
• The two methods disagree about which form is better. On PDCAAS, roasted pistachios scored higher (81) than raw (73), with threonine as the limiting amino acid. On DIAAS, raw scored higher, with lysine limiting. The difference comes from how each method treats digestibility and from the different reference patterns for the age groups used, and it is a reminder that a single protein-quality number depends on the method behind it.

A note on what this does not say: the existing main pistachios page states that roasted pistachios scored at or above 100 for adults. The abstract of the Bailey and Stein paper reports DIAAS values of 86 (raw) and 83 (roasted) for children over 3, adolescents and adults, and describes roasting as lowering digestibility. The figures on this page follow the abstract.

For context, these values put pistachios in the same “good” band as many plant proteins rather than alongside eggs, milk or meat, which typically score at or above 100. In a mixed diet the limiting amino acid of one food is usually made up by another — lysine-rich legumes alongside grains, for example — which is why scores for single foods matter most when one food supplies most of a person's protein.

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Where “Complete Protein” Comes From

Pistachios are widely described as a “complete protein,” and the phrase is worth unpacking because it can mean two quite different things.

1. Contains all nine indispensable amino acids. This is true of pistachios — and of almost every whole food that contains protein, plant or animal. The USDA entry lists measurable amounts of all nine.
2. Supplies all nine in sufficient proportion, after digestion, to meet requirements on its own. This is what a score of 100 or more on DIAAS or PDCAAS means, and it is the stricter sense most people have in mind.

The “complete protein” wording for pistachios traces mainly to a 2023 review in Nutrients by Derbyshire and colleagues, titled “Believe It or ‘Nut’: Why It Is Time to Set the Record Straight on Nut Protein Quality.” Its abstract describes pistachios as “a plant-based complete protein providing all nine EAAs” (essential amino acids) — the first sense above — and cites the PDCAAS values of 73 and 81 for raw and roasted pistachios, the figures measured in pigs by Bailey and Stein. It is a narrative review that collected no new data, and its conflict-of-interest statement says a pistachio growers' trade association commissioned the writing of the manuscript.

Put together: the measurement behind the claim was made in pigs, not people, using standardized ileal digestibility; it produced PDCAAS scores of 73 and 81 and DIAAS scores of 86 and 83; and none of those reaches 100. Pistachios contain all nine indispensable amino acids and rate as a “good” protein by the FAO cut-offs. The research in the pack does not show that pistachio protein meets the stricter “high quality” definition, and no human digestibility study of pistachio protein appears in it.

For a comparison with a plant food that does approach the stricter definition, see quinoa and the complete-protein question.

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The Amino Acid Pattern

The composition data explain why pistachio protein scores better than most tree nuts. Lysine is the amino acid most plant proteins run short of. Dividing the USDA lysine values by each nut's protein gives the amount of lysine per gram of protein:

• Pistachios: about 56 mg of lysine per gram of protein (raw and roasted alike)
• Cashews: about 51 mg
• Peanuts: about 36 mg
• Brazil nuts: about 34 mg
• Pecans: about 31 mg
• Walnuts and hazelnuts: about 28 mg
• Almonds: about 27 mg

On composition alone, pistachio protein carries roughly twice the lysine density of almond or walnut protein. Lysine still came out as the limiting amino acid in the pig DIAAS measurement because the score depends on how much lysine is absorbed, not only how much is present — digestibility pulls the effective figure down.

Other features of the pattern from the USDA raw-kernel entry, per 100 grams:

• Arginine, about 2.1 g. Arginine is the raw material the lining of blood vessels uses to make nitric oxide, the signal that relaxes the vessel wall. It is the amino acid most often discussed in connection with the pistachio blood-pressure trials; see Blood Pressure and Blood Vessels.
• Leucine, about 1.6 g, the branched-chain amino acid most associated with signalling muscle-protein building, with valine (about 1.2 g) and isoleucine (about 0.9 g).
• Threonine, about 0.68 g, roughly 34 mg per gram of protein — the amino acid that limited the PDCAAS for young children.
• Methionine plus cysteine, about 0.65 g combined, the sulfur amino acids.

More on lysine itself is on the lysine page.

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The Fiber: How Much and What Kind

USDA FoodData Central lists 10.6 grams of total dietary fiber per 100 grams of raw pistachio kernels, or about 3 grams per ounce — roughly 11 percent of the 28-gram Daily Value used on US food labels. The database reports total fiber only; it does not split pistachio fiber into soluble and insoluble fractions, and no record in the research pack behind this page measures that split, so no figure for it is given here.

What can be said in general terms is what fiber in a nut is. Most of it is the walls of the kernel's own cells — cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectic substances that the human small intestine cannot digest. Those walls matter in two ways:

• They hold the contents in. Fat and protein locked inside cell walls that chewing does not break open can pass through the small intestine unabsorbed. Dreher's 2012 review in Nutrition Reviews describes pistachios as having a “reduced net metabolizable energy content” — fewer calories are absorbed than the label figure, which is calculated from composition. This is one of the reasons offered for why the weight trials below did not find the gain the calorie count would predict.
• They feed the colon. Whatever reaches the large intestine — the fiber itself and the fat, protein and polyphenols trapped within it — becomes food for gut bacteria. That is the link to the microbiome findings further down.

The general case for dietary fiber, apart from nuts, is covered on the dietary fiber page.

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Satiety and Body Weight Trials

Protein and fiber are the two food components most often linked to fullness, and the pistachio trials set out to test whether a calorie-dense nut leads to weight gain. The full account is in Weight and Mindful Eating; the trials in brief:

• Fantino and colleagues, 2020 (Appetite). Sixty healthy pre-menopausal women who did not usually eat nuts were randomised either to 44 grams (250 calories) of pistachios mid-morning or to their usual diet, for 12 weeks. Body weight and body composition (measured by DXA scan) did not change in either group. Food intake later in the day adjusted to the pistachio portion, mostly through less carbohydrate and starch, and participants reported less hunger and more fullness after the snack. Intakes of thiamin, vitamin B6, copper, manganese and zinc were higher in the pistachio group.
• Carughi and colleagues, 2019 (Nutrients). A four-week pilot in 60 healthy French women compared 56 grams of pistachios with savory biscuits matched for calories and protein as an afternoon snack. Fullness ratings and evening food intake did not differ between groups — a null result for satiety when protein was held equal — and neither snack changed body weight. Micronutrient intake was higher with pistachios. Three authors were consultants to a pistachio growers' trade association, which also funded the study.
• Li and colleagues, 2010 (Journal of the American College of Nutrition). In 59 adults with obesity on a 12-week calorie-reduced diet, the afternoon snack was either 53 grams of salted pistachios or 56 grams of salted pretzels. Both groups lost weight; body mass index fell further in the pistachio group, and triglycerides were lower in the pistachio group at 6 and 12 weeks. Cholesterol, glucose and insulin did not differ.
• Rock and colleagues, 2020 (Nutrients). One hundred adults with overweight or obesity took part in a four-month behavioural weight-loss program, half also given 42 grams of pistachios a day. Weight loss was similar (about 5 percent in each group). The pistachio group reported higher fiber intake and fewer sweets, and their blood pressure fell.
• Gulati and colleagues, 2014 (Nutrition). Sixty Asian Indian adults with metabolic syndrome followed a diet-and-exercise plan for 24 weeks, with or without unsalted pistachios at 20 percent of energy. Waist circumference, fasting glucose, total and LDL cholesterol and several inflammatory markers improved more in the pistachio group.

Pooled, Asbaghi and colleagues' 2021 meta-analysis of 13 randomised trials (563 participants) found no significant change in body weight, body mass index or waist circumference with pistachios. The consistent finding across these studies is not weight loss caused by pistachios but the absence of the weight gain their calories would predict. Whether protein, fiber, the shelling effort or the unabsorbed calories explain that is not separated in any of these trials.

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Post-Meal Blood Sugar

Protein, fat and fiber all slow the rate at which a meal's carbohydrate reaches the bloodstream. The pistachio glucose studies tested that directly. The full article is Blood Sugar and Diabetes.

• Kendall and colleagues, 2011 (European Journal of Clinical Nutrition). In 10 healthy volunteers, pistachios eaten alone produced a blood-sugar response of only about 4 to 9 percent of that from white bread. Added to white bread, pistachios reduced the meal's response in proportion to the dose: 28 grams made no significant difference, while 56 grams cut it to about 67 percent and 84 grams to about 52 percent. Adding 56 grams also lowered the response to parboiled rice and to pasta; for mashed potatoes the reduction did not reach statistical significance.
• Kendall and colleagues, 2014 (same journal). In a randomised crossover study of 20 adults with metabolic syndrome, pistachios eaten with white bread lowered the post-meal glucose rise compared with white bread alone, and raised glucagon-like peptide, a gut hormone involved in insulin release and fullness. Insulin did not differ between the white-bread and pistachio meals.

Longer trials and meta-analyses are summarised on the sibling page. In brief, Hadi and colleagues' 2023 meta-analysis of eight randomised trials found lower fasting blood sugar and fasting insulin with pistachios but no change in the insulin-resistance index HOMA-IR, while Nowrouzi-Sohrabi and colleagues' 2020 meta-analysis of six trials found lower fasting glucose and HOMA-IR but no significant change in HbA1c or fasting insulin. The results do not line up perfectly, which is typical of a small number of modest trials.

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Gut Microbes

The fiber and cell-wall material that escape digestion are the most likely route by which pistachios affect gut bacteria. The evidence is early. The full article is Gut Microbiome.

• Creedon and colleagues, 2020 (Nutrients) pooled nine randomised trials of nuts and gut bacteria in healthy adults — five of almonds, three of walnuts and only one of pistachios. Across all nuts, several bacterial groups that include fiber-fermenting, butyrate-producing species (Clostridium, Lachnospira, Roseburia, Dialister) increased. There was no effect on overall diversity, on the major bacterial phyla, or on stool output. With a single pistachio trial in the analysis, these findings describe nuts as a group rather than pistachios specifically. The review was funded through an almond growers' board.
• Hernández-Alonso and colleagues, 2017 (Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry). In a randomised crossover trial in 39 adults with prediabetes, four months of a diet including 57 grams of pistachios a day lowered three urine compounds produced by gut-bacterial metabolism — hippurate, p-cresol sulfate and dimethylamine — compared with the control diet. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), a bacterial-derived compound studied in heart disease, fell within the pistachio period. These are indirect markers of bacterial activity, not counts of bacteria.

Short-chain fatty acids such as butyrate, produced when bacteria ferment fiber, are explained on the gut barrier and microbiome animation page.

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Plant Protein and Fiber in Large Studies

No study has followed people for decades to see whether pistachio protein or pistachio fiber specifically changes long-term health. What exists are large analyses of plant protein and dietary fiber in general, which provide context but cannot be read as findings about pistachios.

• Plant protein. Naghshi and colleagues' 2020 dose-response meta-analysis in The BMJ pooled 31 prospective cohort studies of about 715,000 adults. Higher plant-protein intake was associated with lower all-cause mortality (pooled estimate 0.92) and lower cardiovascular mortality (0.88), but not with cancer mortality; each additional 3 percent of daily energy from plant protein was associated with a 5 percent lower risk of death from all causes. Animal protein was not significantly associated with cardiovascular or cancer mortality.
• Fiber and mortality. Ramezani and colleagues' 2024 meta-analysis of 64 cohort studies (about 3.5 million participants) in Clinical Nutrition found the highest total fiber intakes associated with lower all-cause (about 23 percent), cardiovascular (26 percent) and cancer (22 percent) mortality. Fiber from nuts and seeds was associated with a 43 percent lower risk of cardiovascular death, though that estimate rests on fewer studies. Insoluble fiber tended to show stronger associations than soluble fiber.
• Fiber in amounts. Reynolds and colleagues' 2019 series of systematic reviews in The Lancet, covering 185 prospective studies and 58 clinical trials, found risk reductions across a range of outcomes were greatest at 25 to 29 grams of fiber a day, with trials showing lower body weight, systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol at higher fiber intakes. The certainty of the evidence for fiber was graded as moderate.
• Fiber in diabetes. A 2020 analysis by Reynolds, Akerman and Mann in PLOS Medicine of 42 trials in adults with prediabetes or diabetes found that higher fiber intake lowered HbA1c, fasting glucose, insulin, insulin resistance and cholesterol. In cohort data, a daily intake of 35 grams compared with the average 19 grams was associated with 14 fewer deaths per 1,000 people over the study period.
• Fiber type and colorectal cancer. Arayici and colleagues' 2022 meta-analysis found soluble and insoluble fiber associated with almost equally lower colorectal cancer risk (effect sizes 0.78 and 0.77).

Seen against these figures, one ounce of pistachios supplies about 3 grams of fiber — around a tenth of the 25 to 29 grams associated with the largest risk reductions in the Lancet analysis — and about 6 grams of plant protein. The cohort studies are observational, cannot prove cause and effect, and measured whole diets rather than single foods.

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What Is Not Known

• Pistachio protein quality in people. The only digestibility measurements in the research behind this page were made in pigs. No human ileal-digestibility study of pistachio protein appears in it.
• The effect of roasting conditions. One study found roasting lowered amino acid digestibility. How temperature, time, salting or other processing changes that is not established.
• The soluble-to-insoluble fiber split. USDA does not report it for pistachios, and no measurement of it is in the pack for this page.
• Which component does what. No trial separated the effects of pistachio protein from those of its fiber, fat, polyphenols or the act of shelling. Satiety, glucose and weight findings are for the whole nut.
• Pistachios and the gut in large trials. The pooled gut-bacteria analysis included only one pistachio trial; the metabolite study measured urine compounds, not bacteria.
• Long-term outcomes. The trials ran for weeks to months. No trial has tested pistachios against hard outcomes such as heart attacks or diabetes diagnoses.
• Funding. Several pistachio studies and reviews were funded or commissioned by nut industry bodies, as their disclosure statements say. That does not make their findings wrong, but independent replication is limited.

The related outcomes of the pistachio trials are covered on Cholesterol and Lipids and Eye Health: Lutein and Zeaxanthin.

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Who the Research Raises Concerns For

• People with tree nut allergy. Nut allergy is a reaction of the immune system to nut proteins — the same protein this page describes. Costa and colleagues' 2019 review lists five officially recognised pistachio allergens (Pis v 1 to Pis v 5) and notes that pistachio allergy can cause moderate to severe reactions and is closely related to cashew allergy. In the NUT CRACKER study (Elizur and colleagues, 2022), all 35 patients with cashew allergy who were also allergic to pistachio became tolerant to pistachio after supervised cashew oral immunotherapy, which illustrates how closely the two allergies are linked. The 2017 British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology guideline describes avoidance, an emergency medication plan and training in its use as the cornerstone of management for diagnosed nut allergy, and reports primary nut allergy in over 2 percent of UK children and 0.5 percent of adults.
• People raising their fiber intake quickly. A sudden rise in fiber from any source commonly brings temporary gas and bloating while gut bacteria adjust.
• Salt. Raw pistachios contain almost no sodium; salted pistachios carry what was added in processing. Several trials above used unsalted pistachios, one used salted.
• Calories. The trials that found no weight gain either had pistachios replace other foods or recorded spontaneous adjustments in what else participants ate. They do not describe pistachios added on top of an unchanged diet without any compensation.

Decisions about allergy testing or about diet in kidney disease, where protein and potassium intake are managed, belong with a clinician.

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Connections

• Nuts — the nuts landing page
• Pistachios — the main topic page
• Pistachios — Benefits Deep Dive — the hub for this series
• Pistachios: Nutrient Profile — the full composition table
• Weight and Mindful Eating
• Blood Sugar and Diabetes
• Gut Microbiome
• Cholesterol and Lipids
• Blood Pressure and Blood Vessels
• Eye Health: Lutein and Zeaxanthin
• Almonds — the closest tree nut on protein and fiber
• Cashews — the botanical relative with a linked allergy
• Peanuts: Protein and Satiety — the legume comparison
• Lysine — the limiting amino acid in the DIAAS measurement
• Threonine — the limiting amino acid in the PDCAAS measurement
• Arginine — the nitric oxide precursor
• Dietary Fiber — fiber in general
• Prediabetes — the group in several pistachio trials
• Metabolic Syndrome
• Obesity

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Key Research Papers

1. Bailey HM, Stein HH. Raw and roasted pistachio nuts (Pistacia vera L.) are 'good' sources of protein based on their digestible indispensable amino acid score as determined in pigs. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2020;100(10):3878-3885. PubMed PMID: 32323331
2. Derbyshire E, Higgs J, Feeney MJ, et al. Believe It or 'Nut': Why It Is Time to Set the Record Straight on Nut Protein Quality: Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) Focus. Nutrients. 2023;15(9). PubMed PMID: 37432263
3. Dreher ML. Pistachio nuts: composition and potential health benefits. Nutrition Reviews. 2012;70(4):234-40. PubMed PMID: 22458696
4. Bulló M, Juanola-Falgarona M, Hernández-Alonso P, et al. Nutrition attributes and health effects of pistachio nuts. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2015;113 Suppl 2:S79-93. PubMed PMID: 26148925
5. Fantino M, Bichard C, Mistretta F, et al. Daily consumption of pistachios over 12 weeks improves dietary profile without increasing body weight in healthy women: A randomized controlled intervention. Appetite. 2020;144:104483. PubMed PMID: 31604062
6. Carughi A, Bellisle F, Dougkas A, et al. A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study to Assess Effects of a Daily Pistachio (Pistacia Vera) Afternoon Snack on Next-Meal Energy Intake, Satiety, and Anthropometry in French Women. Nutrients. 2019;11(4). PubMed PMID: 30986958
7. Li Z, Song R, Nguyen C, et al. Pistachio nuts reduce triglycerides and body weight by comparison to refined carbohydrate snack in obese subjects on a 12-week weight loss program. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2010;29(3):198-203. PubMed PMID: 20833992
8. Rock CL, Zunshine E, Nguyen HT, et al. Effects of Pistachio Consumption in a Behavioral Weight Loss Intervention on Weight Change, Cardiometabolic Factors, and Dietary Intake. Nutrients. 2020;12(7). PubMed PMID: 32698457
9. Gulati S, Misra A, Pandey RM, et al. Effects of pistachio nuts on body composition, metabolic, inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters in Asian Indians with metabolic syndrome: a 24-wk, randomized control trial. Nutrition. 2014;30(2):192-7. PubMed PMID: 24377454
10. Asbaghi O, Hadi A, Campbell MS, et al. Effects of pistachios on anthropometric indices, inflammatory markers, endothelial function and blood pressure in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2021;126(5):718-729. PubMed PMID: 33198823
11. Kendall CW, Josse AR, Esfahani A, et al. The impact of pistachio intake alone or in combination with high-carbohydrate foods on post-prandial glycemia. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2011;65(6):696-702. PubMed PMID: 21364607
12. Kendall CW, West SG, Augustin LS, et al. Acute effects of pistachio consumption on glucose and insulin, satiety hormones and endothelial function in the metabolic syndrome. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2014;68(3):370-5. PubMed PMID: 24424074
13. Hadi A, Asbaghi O, Kazemi M, et al. Effects of pistachios on glycaemic control: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2023;129(10):1693-1702. PubMed PMID: 35795961
14. Nowrouzi-Sohrabi P, Hassanipour S, Sisakht M, et al. The effectiveness of pistachio on glycemic control and insulin sensitivity in patients with type 2 diabetes, prediabetes and metabolic syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome. 2020;14(5):1589-1595. PubMed PMID: 32947760
15. Creedon AC, Hung ES, Berry SE, et al. Nuts and their Effect on Gut Microbiota, Gut Function and Symptoms in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2020;12(8). PubMed PMID: 32781516
16. Hernández-Alonso P, Cañueto D, Giardina S, et al. Effect of pistachio consumption on the modulation of urinary gut microbiota-related metabolites in prediabetic subjects. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 2017;45:48-53. PubMed PMID: 28432876
17. Naghshi S, Sadeghi O, Willett WC, et al. Dietary intake of total, animal, and plant proteins and risk of all cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2020;370:m2412. PubMed PMID: 32699048
18. Ramezani F, Pourghazi F, Eslami M, et al. Dietary fiber intake and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Clinical Nutrition. 2024;43(1):65-83. PubMed PMID: 38011755
19. Reynolds A, Mann J, Cummings J, et al. Carbohydrate quality and human health: a series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Lancet. 2019;393(10170):434-445. PubMed PMID: 30638909
20. Reynolds AN, Akerman AP, Mann J. Dietary fibre and whole grains in diabetes management: Systematic review and meta-analyses. PLoS Medicine. 2020;17(3):e1003053. PubMed PMID: 32142510
21. Arayici ME, Mert-Ozupek N, Yalcin F, et al. Soluble and Insoluble Dietary Fiber Consumption and Colorectal Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrition and Cancer. 2022;74(7):2412-2425. PubMed PMID: 34854791
22. Costa J, Silva I, Vicente AA, et al. Pistachio nut allergy: An updated overview. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2019;59(4):546-562. PubMed PMID: 28925724
23. Elizur A, Appel MY, Nachshon L, et al. Cashew oral immunotherapy for desensitizing cashew-pistachio allergy (NUT CRACKER study). Allergy. 2022;77(6):1863-1872. PubMed PMID: 35000223
24. Stiefel G, Anagnostou K, Boyle RJ, et al. BSACI guideline for the diagnosis and management of peanut and tree nut allergy. Clinical and Experimental Allergy. 2017;47(6):719-739. PubMed PMID: 28836701

PubMed Topic Searches

1. PubMed: pistachio protein quality (DIAAS / PDCAAS)
2. PubMed: pistachios and satiety in randomised trials
3. PubMed: pistachios and post-meal blood sugar
4. PubMed: pistachios and gut microbiota
5. PubMed: nut cell walls and metabolizable energy

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