Dermatomyositis

Heliotrope, whose violet colour names one rash
Heliotrope, whose violet colour names one rash
  1. Overview and Classification
  2. Pathognomonic Skin Findings
  3. Muscle Involvement
  4. Subtypes of Dermatomyositis
  5. Myositis-Specific Antibodies
  6. Anti-Synthetase Syndrome
  7. Diagnosis and Workup
  8. Treatment and Management
  9. Complications and Prognosis
  10. Key Research Papers

Overview and Classification

Dermatomyositis (DM) is a systemic autoimmune disease belonging to the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM) — a group of muscle diseases driven by aberrant immune activation rather than infection, toxins, or inherited defects. What sets DM apart from other IIMs is the presence of characteristic skin findings alongside proximal muscle inflammation. In some patients, the skin disease occurs entirely without detectable muscle weakness, a variant now recognized as its own subtype.

The 2017 European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology (EULAR/ACR) classification criteria brought greater precision to this diagnosis. IIMs are classified by age of onset (adult vs. juvenile), muscle biopsy findings, distribution of weakness, associated features such as dysphagia and interstitial lung disease, and the presence of myositis-specific antibodies. DM is distinguished from polymyositis (PM), inclusion body myositis (IBM), and immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy (IMNM) through this framework.

DM affects women more often than men at roughly a 2:1 ratio and has a bimodal age distribution: a juvenile peak in childhood and an adult peak in the fifth to sixth decade. The adult form carries a meaningful association with underlying malignancy, and international guidance makes cancer screening part of the initial evaluation.

The underlying pathogenesis centers on an interferon-driven vasculopathy. Complement deposition — particularly the membrane attack complex (MAC) — in small capillaries within muscle fascicles causes ischemic injury that begins at the periphery of muscle bundles. This perifascicular atrophy is the histological hallmark of DM and distinguishes it from PM, which involves direct CD8+ T cell cytotoxic attack on myofibers.

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Pathognomonic Skin Findings

Two skin findings in DM are considered pathognomonic — meaning their presence alone is sufficient to strongly suggest the diagnosis even before laboratory or biopsy confirmation.

Heliotrope Rash

The heliotrope rash is a violaceous (purple-red) discoloration of the periorbital skin and eyelids, often accompanied by periorbital edema. The name comes from the heliotrope flower (Heliotropium arborescens), whose blooms display a similar blue-violet hue. This rash tends to be bilateral and symmetric. When present, it is considered pathognomonic for DM. Edema can be severe enough to partially close the eyelids.

Gottron's Papules

Gottron's papules are erythematous to violaceous, flat-topped papules located directly over the extensor surfaces of the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints of the hands. Like the heliotrope rash, they are pathognomonic. The papules may become scaly, atrophic, or depigmented over time. They were first described by the German dermatologist Heinrich Adolf Gottron in 1954.

Gottron's Sign

Gottron's sign is a flat, macular erythema over the knuckles, elbows, and knees — the same extensor bony prominences, but without the raised papular component. It is highly characteristic but considered less specific than Gottron's papules.

Shawl Sign

The shawl sign describes erythema distributed in a V-neck pattern over the anterior chest and in a shawl-like distribution over the shoulders and upper back. Sun-exposed areas are preferentially affected. This pattern reflects the photosensitive nature of DM skin disease — ultraviolet (UV) light worsens inflammation and can trigger flares.

Mechanic's Hands

Mechanic's hands refers to roughening, cracking, and hyperkeratosis of the lateral and palmar surfaces of the fingers, particularly the index finger and thumb. The skin takes on a dirty, fissured appearance resembling the hands of a manual laborer. This finding is strongly associated with anti-synthetase syndrome and the presence of anti-Jo-1 antibodies.

Nail Fold Capillary Changes

Examination of the nail fold under dermoscopy or a simple magnifying lens reveals dilated, tortuous, and ragged capillary loops with dropout (avascular areas). These changes reflect the underlying vasculopathy of DM and are shared with other connective tissue diseases such as systemic sclerosis and mixed connective tissue disease. Nail fold changes are a useful bedside clue, particularly when other skin findings are subtle.

Calcinosis Cutis

Calcium deposits in the skin and subcutaneous tissues (calcinosis cutis) occur particularly in juvenile DM and in adults with anti-NXP2 antibodies. Deposits can form over pressure points, in fascial planes, or diffusely throughout the skin. They are painful, prone to infection, and difficult to treat. Aggressive early immunosuppression in juvenile DM is partly aimed at preventing this complication.

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Muscle Involvement

The muscle disease of DM is a proximal, symmetric inflammatory myopathy. Patients typically report difficulty with activities that require proximal upper or lower extremity strength: raising their arms overhead to brush their hair or reach a shelf, climbing stairs, rising from a low chair or the floor, or getting out of a bathtub.

Distal strength (grip, fine finger movements) is usually preserved early in the disease course, which helps distinguish DM from inclusion body myositis (IBM), where distal weakness and asymmetry are common. Deep tendon reflexes remain intact. Muscle atrophy develops later in chronic or undertreated disease.

Laboratory Markers

Creatine kinase (CK) is the most widely used laboratory marker of muscle inflammation. In active DM, CK is often markedly elevated — sometimes exceeding 10,000 international units (IU)/L, though levels can be surprisingly normal in clinically amyopathic DM (CADM) and may not correlate perfectly with disease activity. Other muscle enzymes — aldolase, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) — may also be elevated and are useful when creatine kinase is equivocal. Inflammatory markers (erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), C-reactive protein (CRP)) are variably elevated.

Muscle Pathology

Muscle biopsy in DM shows perifascicular atrophy — a reduction in muscle fiber size that begins at the periphery of fascicles (the bundles of muscle fibers wrapped in perimysium). This finding reflects ischemic injury caused by complement-mediated destruction of intramuscular capillaries. Immunohistochemistry demonstrates MAC deposition in capillary walls. An inflammatory infiltrate of CD4+ T cells, B cells, and plasmacytoid dendritic cells is found primarily in perimysial and perivascular locations, in contrast to PM where CD8+ T cells invade individual non-necrotic muscle fibers.

Dysphagia

Pharyngeal and upper esophageal muscle weakness can cause dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), nasal regurgitation, and risk of aspiration pneumonia. When present, dysphagia significantly worsens prognosis and requires careful nutritional management.

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Subtypes of Dermatomyositis

Modern classification recognizes several distinct DM subtypes, each with characteristic antibodies, clinical features, and prognosis.

Classic Adult Dermatomyositis

The most common presentation: proximal muscle weakness plus one or more characteristic skin findings (heliotrope, Gottron's papules, shawl sign). Creatine kinase is elevated. Muscle biopsy shows perifascicular atrophy. Responds to immunosuppression in most cases.

Clinically Amyopathic Dermatomyositis (CADM)

In CADM, patients have the pathognomonic skin findings of DM but no clinically detectable muscle weakness for at least six months. Subclinical muscle inflammation may be evident on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or biopsy. CADM is not a benign variant — anti-MDA5 antibody-positive CADM carries a high risk of rapidly progressive interstitial lung disease (RP-ILD) with substantial short-term mortality.

Juvenile Dermatomyositis (JDM)

JDM is the most common idiopathic inflammatory myopathy of childhood. The clinical features overlap with adult DM but with a higher prevalence of calcinosis and a generally better prognosis. Malignancy association is rare. Anti-NXP2 antibodies are particularly common and predict calcinosis risk. Aggressive early treatment is prioritized to prevent permanent muscle damage and calcinosis.

Paraneoplastic (Cancer-Associated) Dermatomyositis

In adults over 40, DM can be the first manifestation of an occult malignancy. The most commonly associated cancers are ovarian, lung, colorectal, breast, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The malignancy may precede, coincide with, or follow the DM diagnosis — typically within three years. Anti-TIF1γ antibodies carry the highest malignancy risk of any myositis antibody. The 2023 international cancer-screening guideline sorts each adult's cancer risk as standard, moderate or high and sets how often screening is repeated by that risk (see Cancer Screening below).

Overlap Myositis

DM can overlap with other connective tissue diseases including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), systemic sclerosis, Sjögren's syndrome, and rheumatoid arthritis. These overlap syndromes are common, particularly in anti-synthetase syndrome, where features of several connective tissue diseases coexist.

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Myositis-Specific Antibodies

Myositis-specific antibodies (MSAs) are autoantibodies found almost exclusively in patients with IIMs. They are detected in roughly 50–70% of DM patients and are highly valuable for predicting the clinical phenotype, organ involvement, cancer risk, and prognosis. Each antibody defines a relatively distinct clinical subtype.

Anti-TIF1γ (Anti-p155/140)

Anti-transcription intermediary factor 1 gamma (TIF1γ) is the myositis antibody with the strongest association with malignancy. Adults with anti-TIF1γ have an approximately 45% risk of underlying cancer, making it the single most important antibody for triggering cancer screening. It is also relatively common in juvenile DM (where malignancy risk is low), highlighting that the same antibody has different implications by age.

Anti-MDA5 (Anti-CADM-140)

Anti-melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) defines a distinctive syndrome: CADM with minimal or no muscle disease, prominent skin ulceration (especially over Gottron's areas), palmar papules, and a high risk of rapidly progressive ILD. RP-ILD in anti-MDA5 DM can progress to respiratory failure within weeks to months and carries mortality rates of 30–50% in some series despite aggressive treatment. Early recognition and aggressive immunosuppression are considered critical.

Anti-NXP2 (Anti-p140)

Anti-nuclear matrix protein 2 (NXP2) is associated with severe proximal muscle weakness, calcinosis (both in children and adults), and an intermediate malignancy risk in adults. In juvenile DM, anti-NXP2 is the antibody most strongly linked to the development of calcinosis.

Anti-SAE (Small Ubiquitin-like Modifier Activating Enzyme)

Anti-SAE is associated with CADM at onset that later develops into overt myositis, along with dysphagia. It is relatively rare.

Anti-Mi-2

Anti-Mi-2 (targeting a nucleosome remodeling complex) is one of the original DM antibodies. It is associated with classic DM features (heliotrope, Gottron's papules, shawl sign), relatively good treatment response, and low malignancy risk. Overall prognosis is favorable.

Anti-SRP and Anti-HMGCR

Anti-signal recognition particle (SRP) and anti-3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR) antibodies define immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy (IMNM) rather than classic DM, but can occasionally coexist. Anti-SRP is associated with severe, rapidly progressive necrotizing myopathy with very high creatine kinase levels and poor treatment response.

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Anti-Synthetase Syndrome

Anti-synthetase syndrome (ASS) is a distinct IIM subtype defined by the presence of antibodies against aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases — enzymes that attach specific amino acids to their corresponding transfer RNA molecules during protein synthesis. The most common is anti-Jo-1 (anti-histidyl-tRNA synthetase), present in approximately 20–30% of all IIM patients. Other synthetase antibodies include anti-PL-7, anti-PL-12, anti-EJ, anti-OJ, anti-KS, anti-Zo, and anti-Ha.

The Classic Pentad

Anti-synthetase syndrome is characterized by five overlapping clinical features that may not all be present simultaneously:

  1. Inflammatory myopathy — proximal weakness, elevated creatine kinase
  2. Interstitial lung disease (ILD) — the most serious and potentially life-limiting complication; presents with dyspnea, cough, and reduced diffusion capacity; high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) shows nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP) or organizing pneumonia (OP) patterns
  3. Inflammatory arthritis — non-erosive, symmetric polyarthritis resembling rheumatoid arthritis
  4. Raynaud's phenomenon — episodic vasospasm of fingers in response to cold or stress
  5. Mechanic's hands — cracked, hyperkeratotic lateral fingers

ILD in Anti-Synthetase Syndrome

ILD occurs in approximately 70% of anti-Jo-1 positive patients and is the primary driver of morbidity and mortality. Pulmonary function tests reveal a restrictive pattern with a reduced diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (DLCO), a measure of how well oxygen passes into the blood. HRCT of the chest is the preferred imaging modality. Bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage may be needed if the diagnosis is uncertain. Treatment of ILD in ASS typically requires combination immunosuppression — steroids plus azathioprine, mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), or cyclophosphamide for severe cases. Rituximab has shown benefit in refractory ILD.

Treatment Considerations

Anti-synthetase syndrome often requires more aggressive immunosuppression than classic DM and tends to have a relapsing-remitting course. Mycophenolate mofetil and azathioprine are preferred ILD-sparing agents. Rituximab is increasingly used for refractory disease or when the ILD is progressive despite conventional therapy.

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Diagnosis and Workup

The diagnosis of dermatomyositis integrates clinical, serological, electrophysiological, imaging, and histopathological data. No single test is definitive, but the combination of pathognomonic skin findings with a compatible clinical and laboratory picture is often sufficient.

Laboratory Studies

Electromyography (EMG)

EMG in active inflammatory myopathy shows a myopathic pattern: short-duration, small-amplitude, polyphasic motor unit potentials (MUPs) with early, full-interference pattern on minimal effort. Spontaneous activity — fibrillation potentials and positive sharp waves — reflects active muscle membrane irritability. EMG helps confirm muscle disease and guides biopsy site selection (the contralateral side of an abnormal EMG is preferred for biopsy to avoid artifacts from needle trauma).

Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Muscle

Magnetic resonance imaging is increasingly used as a non-invasive tool for assessing muscle inflammation. In active DM, short tau inversion recovery (STIR) sequences show edema within the muscle. The perifascicular distribution of edema — bright signal at the muscle bundle periphery — corresponds to the perifascicular atrophy seen on biopsy and is relatively specific for DM. MRI also guides biopsy site selection and monitors treatment response.

Muscle Biopsy

Open or needle biopsy of an affected muscle (ideally a proximal limb muscle with moderate weakness and abnormal magnetic resonance imaging signal) remains the gold standard for confirming the diagnosis and excluding other causes of myopathy. Histopathology in DM shows perifascicular atrophy, MAC deposition in capillaries, and a perivascular/perimysial inflammatory infiltrate of CD4+ T cells and B cells. CD8+ T cell invasion of non-necrotic fibers (seen in PM) is absent.

Cancer Screening

Cancer screening in adults with newly diagnosed DM is set out in the 2023 international guideline of the International Myositis Assessment and Clinical Studies Group (IMACS), made of 18 recommendations agreed by an expert panel. The guideline notes that the cancer risk is raised in the 3 years before and the 3 years after the myositis begins. It sorts each person's cancer risk into standard, moderate or high according to the myositis subtype, the antibody result and clinical features. It describes a 'basic' screening panel (including a chest X-ray and preliminary blood tests) and an 'enhanced' panel (including computed tomography (CT) scans and tumour markers), with the timing and frequency of each set by the risk group, and it lists upper or lower gastrointestinal endoscopy, nasoendoscopy (a camera look at the back of the nose and throat) and 18F-FDG positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT, a scan that shows highly active tissue) for specific groups of patients. Older practice described a baseline CT of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis; mammography and pelvic ultrasound in women; and age-appropriate cancer screening (colonoscopy), repeated annually for three to five years. Anti-TIF1γ positivity significantly increases the pretest probability of malignancy.

Pulmonary Evaluation

Given the risk of ILD — especially in anti-synthetase syndrome and anti-MDA5 DM — pulmonary function tests (spirometry + DLCO) and HRCT of the chest are commonly obtained in all new DM diagnoses. Abnormal DLCO or HRCT findings usually lead to a pulmonology referral.

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Treatment and Management

Treatment of DM is individualized based on disease severity, subtype, organ involvement, and antibody profile. The goals are to suppress inflammation, restore muscle strength, protect involved organs (particularly the lungs), and minimize treatment-related toxicity.

Corticosteroids (First-Line)

High-dose prednisone (1 mg/kg/day, up to 60–80 mg/day) remains the cornerstone of initial therapy. Improvement in muscle strength typically begins within 4–8 weeks. Prednisone is gradually tapered over months as clinical and laboratory measures improve. Long-term high-dose steroids carry significant toxicity — osteoporosis, infection, hyperglycemia, cataracts, avascular necrosis — which is why steroid-sparing agents are usually introduced early.

Steroid-Sparing Immunosuppressants

Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG)

IVIG (2 g/kg per cycle, typically monthly) is highly effective in DM and provides a rapid response — often within weeks. It is particularly valuable in refractory DM, CADM, and patients who cannot tolerate high-dose immunosuppression (such as those with active infection). A randomized controlled trial (ProDERM trial) confirmed IVIG efficacy in active DM: among 95 adults given IVIG 2 g per kg of body weight or placebo every 4 weeks, 79% on IVIG (37 of 47) improved at least minimally on a combined myositis score at 16 weeks, against 44% on placebo (21 of 48). IVIG is generally well-tolerated but expensive; headache, aseptic meningitis, and renal toxicity are potential adverse effects, and blood clots are another. Over 40 weeks in ProDERM, headache occurred in 42% of people on IVIG, fever in 19% and nausea in 16%, and 9 serious side effects were judged related to IVIG, including 6 blood clot (thromboembolic) events.

Rituximab

Rituximab (anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody depleting B cells) has demonstrated efficacy in refractory DM and anti-synthetase syndrome, particularly for ILD. The randomized RIM (Rituximab in Myositis) trial of 200 adults and children with treatment-resistant myositis compared starting rituximab early with starting it late, after a placebo phase: its main comparison found no difference in the time to improvement between the two groups (P = 0.74; median about 20 weeks in each), although 83% of all patients met the definition of improvement. A later analysis of the same trial found that people with anti-synthetase (mainly anti-Jo-1) or anti-Mi-2 antibodies, children with juvenile DM and people with less disease damage improved sooner. It is used when conventional therapies fail or when the ILD component is progressive.

Brepocitinib (Tested in a 2026 Trial)

Brepocitinib is an oral drug that blocks two cell-signalling enzymes, TYK2 and JAK1. In the 2026 phase 3 VALOR trial, 241 adults with dermatomyositis that had resisted earlier treatment took brepocitinib 30 mg, brepocitinib 15 mg or placebo once a day for 52 weeks alongside their usual treatment, with steroids tapered. At 52 weeks the average Total Improvement Score (a 0–100 combined myositis score) was 46.5 with 30 mg, 37.5 with 15 mg and 31.2 with placebo; the 30 mg dose was better than placebo on all nine key secondary measures, including skin disease, steroid tapering and physical function, while the 15 mg dose was not significantly better. A separate analysis of skin results found that 33.3% on 30 mg reached a meaningful skin improvement against 17.7% on placebo. Serious infections were more frequent with 30 mg than with placebo (10% vs. 1%), and no deaths occurred during the trial.

Hydroxychloroquine

Hydroxychloroquine (200–400 mg/day) is an antimalarial effective for the cutaneous manifestations of DM. It has a favorable safety profile and is often used as an adjunct specifically for the skin disease component, including photosensitive rashes and Gottron's papules.

Skin-Directed Measures

Sun protection is a standard part of skin care in DM, because ultraviolet light worsens the rash — commonly described measures are broad-spectrum sunscreen (SPF 50+), protective clothing, and limiting ultraviolet exposure. Topical corticosteroids and topical calcineurin inhibitors (tacrolimus) can address skin inflammation. Antihistamines manage pruritus.

Physical and Occupational Therapy

Supervised exercise — beginning with low-intensity aerobic exercise during the acute phase and progressing to resistance training during stable disease — improves muscle strength and function without worsening inflammation. Physical and occupational therapy are core components of a comprehensive DM management program.

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Complications and Prognosis

DM can affect multiple organ systems beyond skin and muscle, and the long-term outcome depends heavily on the subtype, antibody profile, and extent of systemic involvement.

Interstitial Lung Disease

ILD is the most serious complication overall and the leading cause of DM-related mortality. Its prevalence ranges from approximately 20–65% depending on antibody profile. Anti-MDA5 DM carries the highest risk of rapidly progressive ILD with acute respiratory failure. Anti-synthetase syndrome is associated with chronic progressive ILD. Early pulmonary surveillance and aggressive treatment when ILD is detected are standard practice.

Malignancy

The standardized incidence ratio for cancer in adult DM is approximately 3–7 times that of the general population. Ovarian cancer has the highest relative risk. The cancer risk is greatest in the first year after DM diagnosis and persists for several years. Failure to screen appropriately can result in delayed diagnosis of a treatable malignancy.

Cardiac Involvement

Subclinical cardiac disease — including conduction abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, and pericarditis — affects a subset of patients. Cardiac involvement is associated with worse outcomes. Routine electrocardiogram (ECG) and cardiac monitoring are appropriate in moderate-to-severe disease.

Calcinosis

Calcinosis is difficult to treat. Options with limited evidence include diltiazem, colchicine, aluminum hydroxide, bisphosphonates, probenecid, and surgical removal for localized accessible deposits. Prevention through aggressive early immunosuppression — particularly in juvenile DM — is the most effective strategy.

Prognosis

Overall five-year survival for adult DM is approximately 75–85% in contemporary cohorts. Mortality is driven primarily by ILD, malignancy, infection (a major consequence of immunosuppression), and cardiac disease. Anti-MDA5 antibody-positive RP-ILD carries the worst short-term prognosis. Patients with anti-Mi-2 antibodies and classic skin findings generally have the most favorable outcomes. Juvenile DM has a better prognosis than adult-onset disease, with most patients achieving remission with treatment.

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Key Research Papers

  1. Lundberg IE, Tjärnlund A, Bottai M, et al. "2017 European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology classification criteria for adult and juvenile idiopathic inflammatory myopathies and their major subgroups." Ann Rheum Dis. 2017. — PubMed PMID: 29079590
  2. Fiorentino D et al. "Most patients with cancer-associated dermatomyositis have antibodies to nuclear matrix protein NXP-2 or transcription intermediary factor 1γ." Arthritis Rheum. 2013. — PubMed PMID: 24037894
  3. Chaisson NF, Paik J, Orbai AM, et al. "A novel dermato-pulmonary syndrome associated with MDA-5 antibodies." Medicine. 2012. — PubMed PMID: 22732950
  4. Tomasova Studynkova J et al. "The role of MRI in the assessment of polymyositis and dermatomyositis." Rheumatology. 2007. — PubMed PMID: 17500079
  5. Rider LG, Miller FW. "Deciphering the clinical presentations, pathogenesis, and treatment of the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies." JAMA. 2011. — PubMed PMID: 21224460
  6. Dalakas MC. "Inflammatory muscle diseases." N Engl J Med. 2015. — PubMed PMID: 25923553
  7. Aggarwal R, Oddis CV. "Therapeutic advances in myositis." Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2012. — PubMed PMID: 22955021
  8. Hallowell RW, Danoff SK. "Interstitial lung disease associated with the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies and the antisynthetase syndrome." Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2014. — PubMed PMID: 25203119
  9. Marie I. "Morbidity and mortality in adult polymyositis and dermatomyositis." Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2012. — PubMed PMID: 22410829
  10. Lundberg IE et al. "Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies." Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2021. — PubMed PMID: 34857798
  11. Aggarwal R, Charles-Schoeman C, Schessl J, et al. "Trial of Intravenous Immune Globulin in Dermatomyositis." N Engl J Med. 2022. — PubMed PMID: 36198179
  12. Oddis CV, Reed AM, Aggarwal R, et al. "Rituximab in the treatment of refractory adult and juvenile dermatomyositis and adult polymyositis: a randomized, placebo-phase trial." Arthritis Rheum. 2013. — PubMed PMID: 23124935
  13. Aggarwal R, Bandos A, Reed AM, et al. "Predictors of clinical improvement in rituximab-treated refractory adult and juvenile dermatomyositis and adult polymyositis." Arthritis Rheumatol. 2014. — PubMed PMID: 24574235
  14. Oldroyd AGS, Callen JP, Chinoy H, et al. "International Guideline for Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathy-Associated Cancer Screening: an International Myositis Assessment and Clinical Studies Group (IMACS) initiative." Nat Rev Rheumatol. 2023. — PubMed PMID: 37945774
  15. Vleugels RA, Paik JJ, Bauer Ventura I, et al. "A Phase 3 Trial of Brepocitinib in Dermatomyositis." N Engl J Med. 2026. — PubMed PMID: 41910335
  16. Mangold AR, Haemel A, Shahriari N, et al. "Skin-Specific Outcomes of Brepocitinib in Patients With Dermatomyositis: Secondary Analysis of a Phase 3 Randomized Clinical Trial." JAMA Dermatol. 2026. — PubMed PMID: 42646746

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Connections