Nocardiosis

Table of Contents

1. Overview
2. Causative Agent and Microbiology
3. Epidemiology and Risk Factors
4. Clinical Presentations
5. Pulmonary Nocardiosis
6. Cutaneous and Lymphocutaneous Nocardiosis
7. Disseminated Nocardiosis and Brain Abscess
8. Diagnosis
9. Treatment
10. Prognosis and Special Populations
11. Key Research Papers
12. Connections
13. Featured Videos

Overview

Nocardiosis is an infectious disease caused by aerobic, filamentous bacteria of the genus Nocardia — environmental saprophytes found in soil and decaying organic matter worldwide. The infection predominantly affects people with weakened immune systems, though approximately 30% of cases occur in immunocompetent individuals. It presents in three major clinical forms: pulmonary (most common), cutaneous or lymphocutaneous, and disseminated disease, which can spread to the brain and cause life-threatening abscesses.

Nocardiosis is often called "the great masquerader" because its subacute, slowly progressive course closely mimics tuberculosis, lung cancer, fungal pneumonia, and other chronic infections. The diagnosis is frequently delayed because the organism grows slowly in culture and requires special laboratory awareness. Without prompt and prolonged antibiotic therapy — typically six months to one year — the disease carries a high mortality rate, especially when the central nervous system is involved.

Early recognition of nocardiosis is critical: reviews place nocardiosis high on the list of possible causes in any immunocompromised patient with subacute pneumonia, unexplained cavitary lung lesions, or brain abscess. Once identified, treatment with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) and, for severe cases, combination regimens including imipenem and amikacin, is highly effective.

Back to Table of Contents

Causative Agent and Microbiology

Nocardia species are aerobic, gram-positive, filamentous bacteria that form branching rods resembling fungi under the microscope. They are classified as higher-order bacteria belonging to the order Actinomycetales — closely related to Mycobacterium, Actinomyces, and Streptomyces. A key laboratory distinguishing feature is that Nocardia is weakly acid-fast on modified Ziehl-Neelsen (Fite) stain, which separates it from the acid-fast-negative Actinomyces — an important diagnostic distinction because both produce similar branching gram-positive filaments.

On Gram stain, Nocardia appears as beaded, branching gram-positive filamentous rods that can fragment into coccobacillary forms. The organism is strictly aerobic and grows slowly on routine laboratory media, requiring incubation of at least two to three weeks before colonies appear.

The most clinically relevant species include:

• Nocardia asteroides complex — most common cause of pulmonary and systemic nocardiosis; historically the dominant species group in the USA.
• Nocardia brasiliensis — primary cause of cutaneous nocardiosis and mycetoma; common in Central and South America.
• Nocardia nova — pulmonary and systemic disease; generally susceptible to TMP-SMX.
• Nocardia farcinica — considered the most virulent species; associated with higher rates of dissemination, multi-drug resistance (including resistance to cephalosporins and some fluoroquinolones), and worse outcomes.
• Nocardia cyriacigeorgica — increasingly recognized in clinical series; pulmonary and disseminated presentations.

Species identification using 16S rRNA gene sequencing has become the standard of care because different species carry markedly different antibiotic susceptibility profiles. What was historically called the N. asteroides complex has since been split into multiple distinct species using molecular methods, which has clinical implications for treatment selection.

Back to Table of Contents

Epidemiology and Risk Factors

Nocardiosis occurs worldwide, with an estimated 25,000 to 30,000 cases per year globally. In the United States, approximately 1,000 new cases are reported annually, though this likely represents underdiagnosis given the organism's fastidious growth requirements and frequent misidentification. The infection shows a male predominance across most clinical series, and it can affect individuals of any age, though most cases occur in adults.

Nocardia is an environmental saprophyte — it lives in soil, decaying plant matter, and freshwater worldwide. Infection occurs through two primary routes: inhalation of aerosolized organisms (leading to pulmonary disease) or direct skin inoculation via trauma (thorn prick, splinter, soil contamination) leading to cutaneous or subcutaneous disease.

The major risk factors for nocardiosis are conditions that impair T-cell-mediated immunity:

• Solid organ transplantation — particularly lung, kidney, and heart transplants; calcineurin inhibitors profoundly impair Nocardia clearance
• Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT)
• Long-term corticosteroid therapy — even moderate doses (prednisone >10 mg/day for prolonged periods)
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) — particularly with CD4 counts below 200 cells/mm³
• Anti-TNF therapy (infliximab, etanercept, adalimumab) and other biologic immunosuppressants
• Hematologic malignancies — lymphoma, leukemia
• Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) — an inherited disorder of neutrophil killing; nocardiosis is a sentinel infection
• Alcoholism and cirrhosis

Importantly, approximately 30% of nocardiosis cases occur in individuals with no identifiable immunodeficiency, particularly for primary cutaneous disease and some cases of pulmonary infection in older adults. Immunocompetent patients tend to have less severe and more localized disease.

Back to Table of Contents

Clinical Presentations

Nocardiosis manifests in three primary clinical forms, which can overlap, and reviews describe checking for dissemination whenever any form is identified:

1. Pulmonary nocardiosis — accounts for approximately 75% of cases; the dominant form in immunocompromised hosts; results from inhalation of Nocardia organisms.
2. Cutaneous and lymphocutaneous nocardiosis — results from direct inoculation through breaks in the skin; includes primary cutaneous disease, lymphocutaneous (sporotrichoid) spread, and mycetoma (Madura foot).
3. Disseminated nocardiosis — hematogenous spread from a pulmonary focus to the brain (most feared complication), skin, bones, kidneys, eyes, and other organs; can develop from pulmonary nocardiosis.

The clinical presentation typically evolves over weeks to months — the subacute timeframe is characteristic and distinguishes nocardiosis from acute bacterial pneumonias. This slow progression often leads to significant diagnostic delay, sometimes by several months, which worsens outcomes.

Back to Table of Contents

Pulmonary Nocardiosis

Pulmonary nocardiosis is the most common presentation, accounting for roughly three-quarters of all cases. It occurs when inhaled Nocardia organisms evade alveolar macrophage killing — a process impaired particularly in T-cell-deficient states — and establish infection in the lung parenchyma.

The typical clinical picture resembles chronic pneumonia or tuberculosis:

• Subacute onset over weeks to months (rarely acute)
• Productive cough, which may be blood-tinged
• Fever, often low-grade and persistent
• Night sweats and weight loss
• Progressive fatigue and malaise
• Chest pain in patients with pleural involvement

Chest computed tomography (CT) findings include:

• Consolidation — patchy or lobar; may be migratory
• Pulmonary nodules — single or multiple; can be large
• Cavitation — occurs in 20 to 30% of cases; seen particularly with N. farcinica
• Pleural effusion or empyema
• Mediastinal or hilar lymphadenopathy (less common)

The radiographic appearance is nonspecific and is frequently mistaken for tuberculosis, bacterial lung abscess, fungal pneumonia (aspergillosis, histoplasmosis), or lung cancer. In transplant recipients, nocardiosis is easily confused with cytomegalovirus pneumonitis, Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia, and drug-induced pulmonary toxicity.

A critical point: pulmonary nocardiosis can spread through the blood to the brain without causing symptoms. Reviews describe brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for patients diagnosed with pulmonary nocardiosis to look for a cerebral abscess, whether or not they have neurological symptoms. Many patients with brain involvement are asymptomatic at the time of initial pulmonary diagnosis.

Back to Table of Contents

Cutaneous and Lymphocutaneous Nocardiosis

Cutaneous nocardiosis results from direct inoculation of Nocardia into the skin, typically after minor trauma — thorn pricks, splinters, scratches, or contamination of an abrasion with soil. It is the predominant form in immunocompetent individuals and is particularly common in outdoor workers, gardeners, farmers, and people in tropical or subtropical climates.

Primary cutaneous nocardiosis begins as a papule, pustule, or area of cellulitis at the inoculation site. The infection may remain localized or progress to involve deeper structures. Three main patterns exist:

• Superficial skin infection — cellulitis, pustule, or abscess at the inoculation site; most common in immunocompromised patients after trauma.
• Lymphocutaneous (sporotrichoid) disease — ascending spread along lymphatic channels; painless or minimally painful subcutaneous nodules develop along the lymphatic drainage pathway from the inoculation site, mimicking the classic pattern of sporotrichosis (hence "sporotrichoid"). The lymph nodes in the regional chain may become enlarged and suppurate.
• Mycetoma (Madura foot) — caused most commonly by N. brasiliensis; a chronic, indolent infection of the subcutaneous tissues, fascia, and sometimes bone; classically involves the feet or hands; characterized by tumefaction (painless swelling), multiple draining sinuses, and discharge containing granules (sulfur granules — organized aggregates of bacteria visible to the naked eye); can be severely destructive to underlying bone if untreated for years.

Lymphocutaneous nocardiosis is easily confused with sporotrichosis (a fungal infection with the same pattern), atypical mycobacterial infections (particularly Mycobacterium marinum), and leishmaniasis. The modified acid-fast stain and culture on appropriate media are the definitive discriminators.

Unlike pulmonary nocardiosis, primary cutaneous disease in an immunocompetent host rarely disseminates systemically. However, in immunocompromised patients, cutaneous inoculation can lead to disseminated disease.

Back to Table of Contents

Disseminated Nocardiosis and Brain Abscess

Disseminated nocardiosis occurs when the organism spreads hematogenously from a pulmonary focus (rarely from a cutaneous focus in immunocompromised patients) to distant organs. The brain is the most common and most feared site of dissemination.

Cerebral nocardiosis (brain abscess) is the most serious complication of systemic nocardiosis and carries the highest mortality:

• Can develop in patients with pulmonary nocardiosis, especially those who are immunocompromised
• Can be solitary or multiple abscesses
• On computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging: ring-enhancing lesions with surrounding edema, indistinguishable from other causes of brain abscess (bacterial, fungal, toxoplasmosis, metastatic cancer)
• Symptoms include headache, focal neurological deficits, altered mental status, or seizures — but many patients are neurologically asymptomatic at the time of detection on screening imaging
• Mortality with cerebral nocardiosis: a systematic review of 129 papers on adults with central nervous system nocardiosis reported from 2000 to 2020 found an overall death rate of 22.8%

In that review, N. farcinica was the most common species (39.6%), 34% of patients had a normal immune system, and corticosteroid use was the most common predisposing factor (55.8%). Brain abscess was the most common imaging finding (86.9%). Patients who had surgery as well as antibiotics had better survival than those treated with antibiotics alone, and a weakened immune system was independently linked to a poor outcome.

Other sites of dissemination include:

• Skin — secondary cutaneous lesions from hematogenous seeding (distinct from primary inoculation cutaneous disease)
• Bone — osteomyelitis, particularly vertebral osteomyelitis
• Eyes — endophthalmitis (rare but vision-threatening)
• Kidneys — renal abscess
• Pericardium — pericarditis and pericardial effusion
• Endocardium — infective endocarditis (rare)

A critical management principle: blood cultures are almost always negative even in disseminated nocardiosis because the organism grows slowly, does not sustain bacteremia, and may not survive standard blood culture conditions. Diagnosis of dissemination relies on imaging (magnetic resonance imaging brain), culture of aspirated material from abscesses, and tissue biopsy.

Surgical aspiration of brain abscess greater than 2.5 cm is both diagnostic (yields organism for culture and susceptibility testing) and therapeutic (decompression). Stereotactic computed tomography-guided aspiration is the preferred technique for deep or multiple lesions.

Back to Table of Contents

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of nocardiosis requires a high index of clinical suspicion combined with microbiological confirmation. The organism is frequently missed because it grows slowly and may be overgrown by faster-growing bacteria if the laboratory is not alerted.

Specimen Collection

• Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) — the highest-yield specimen for pulmonary disease; reviews describe early bronchoscopy with BAL when nocardiosis is suspected.
• Sputum culture — adequate in some cases but less sensitive than BAL; deep expectorated specimens preferred.
• Abscess aspirate — brain abscess aspirate or skin/soft-tissue abscess drainage; essential for central nervous system (CNS) disease (both diagnosis and decompression).
• Tissue biopsy — surgical biopsy of involved lung, skin, or bone when other specimens are non-diagnostic.
• Blood cultures — almost always negative; a negative result does not rule out disseminated disease.

Laboratory Methods

• Modified acid-fast stain (Fite stain) — Nocardia stains weakly acid-fast with modified Ziehl-Neelsen (using 1% sulfuric acid as decolorizer rather than acid-alcohol). This is a critical distinguishing feature: Actinomyces (which looks similar on Gram stain) is NOT acid-fast, while Nocardia is weakly positive.
• Gram stain — beaded, branching gram-positive filamentous rods; may fragment into diphtheroid-like forms in older cultures.
• Culture — the definitive diagnostic method; the laboratory needs to be told explicitly that nocardiosis is suspected so plates are held for at least three weeks. Nocardia grows on routine sheep blood agar, chocolate agar, and BCYE (buffered charcoal yeast extract) agar under aerobic conditions. Colonies are typically chalky-white to orange, dry, and waxy with a musty or earthy odor from production of geosmin.
• 16S rRNA gene sequencing — essential for species-level identification, which directly influences antibiotic susceptibility predictions. N. farcinica, the most virulent and drug-resistant species, is told apart from the more susceptible species in the N. asteroides complex.
• Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) — required for all clinical isolates because susceptibility to TMP-SMX and other agents varies unpredictably between species and even within species. The Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) broth microdilution method is recommended for nocardia AST.

Imaging

• Chest computed tomography — superior to chest X-ray for detecting pulmonary consolidation, nodules, cavitation, and pleural disease; essential for all suspected pulmonary nocardiosis.
• Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast — described in reviews as standard for all patients with confirmed or suspected pulmonary or disseminated nocardiosis, regardless of neurological symptoms; ring-enhancing lesions with surrounding edema are characteristic but nonspecific.

Back to Table of Contents

Treatment

Treatment of nocardiosis requires prolonged antibiotic therapy — this cannot be overstated. Unlike typical bacterial pneumonias treated for 5 to 10 days, nocardiosis requires months of treatment because the organism is slow-growing, intracellular, and difficult to eradicate. Premature discontinuation is a major cause of relapse.

Recommended Treatment Durations

• Pulmonary nocardiosis without central nervous system involvement: 3 to 6 months (6 months for immunocompromised patients)
• Central nervous system nocardiosis (cerebral abscess): 12 months (some experts recommend indefinite suppression in profoundly immunocompromised patients)
• Primary cutaneous nocardiosis: 3 months
• Mycetoma: 6 to 12 months or longer until clinical resolution

Shorter courses are being studied, not established. In a European study of 117 solid organ transplant recipients with nocardiosis (2000–2014), 17 patients received short-course antibiotics (median 56 days); 88% were cured and alive at 1 year, and 5.9% relapsed. The authors describe short courses as a strategy for further study. In the same study, 1-year mortality was 16.2% in transplant recipients with nocardiosis versus 1.3% in matched transplant recipients without it.

Antibiotic Regimens

• Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) — the cornerstone of nocardiosis treatment and the drug of choice for most species. For mild-to-moderate pulmonary disease: TMP 5 to 10 mg/kg/day in 2 to 3 divided doses. For central nervous system disease: high-dose TMP 15 to 20 mg/kg/day divided every 6 to 8 hours. TMP-SMX penetrates the blood-brain barrier effectively and concentrates well in abscesses. Major limitations: sulfonamide allergy (desensitization may be required), myelosuppression, and the fact that some species (particularly N. farcinica) may be resistant.
• Imipenem-cilastatin — excellent central nervous system penetration; active against most Nocardia species; used in severe or central nervous system disease. Combined with amikacin as part of the standard triple-drug regimen for life-threatening disease.
• Amikacin — synergistic with imipenem; administered intravenously; monitor renal function and serum trough levels closely. Typically used for the initial 2 to 4 weeks of severe/central nervous system disease before transitioning to oral regimens.
• Linezolid — excellent central nervous system and tissue penetration; active against most Nocardia species including drug-resistant strains; used for patients intolerant of TMP-SMX or with resistant isolates. Standard dose: 600 mg twice daily orally or intravenous (IV). Important toxicities with prolonged use include myelosuppression (monitor complete blood count (CBC) weekly), peripheral neuropathy (monitor for paresthesias), and serotonin syndrome with concurrent serotonergic agents.
• Minocycline — oral option with good bioavailability; active against many Nocardia species; used as part of combination regimens or for step-down therapy in select cases.
• Moxifloxacin and other fluoroquinolones — variable activity against Nocardia; species-dependent; may be useful in combination regimens when susceptibility is confirmed.

Triple Therapy for Central Nervous System/Severe Disseminated Nocardiosis

For life-threatening central nervous system or severely disseminated nocardiosis, most experts recommend initial triple therapy with:

1. TMP-SMX (high-dose)
2. Imipenem-cilastatin
3. Amikacin

This combination is continued until clinical and radiographic stabilization (typically 4 to 6 weeks), after which treatment can be simplified based on susceptibility results. The 2019 American Society of Transplantation guideline states that a sulfonamide is the first-line treatment, that combination therapy with at least two antimicrobial agents is used initially for disseminated or severe nocardiosis, and that species identification and susceptibility testing are strongly recommended.

Surgical Treatment

• Brain abscess drainage — stereotactic aspiration is recommended for abscesses greater than 2.5 cm, lesions with significant mass effect, or those not responding to 4 to 6 weeks of antibiotic therapy.
• Mycetoma — wide surgical excision combined with prolonged antibiotics; amputation is sometimes necessary for severely destructive disease of the extremities.

Immunosuppression Reduction

In transplant recipients, carefully reducing immunosuppressant doses (calcineurin inhibitors, corticosteroids) is an important adjunctive measure. This is balanced against the risk of rejection and is managed together with the transplant team.

Back to Table of Contents

Prognosis and Special Populations

Prognosis in nocardiosis varies dramatically based on the site of disease, immune status of the host, infecting species, and timeliness of diagnosis and treatment:

• Untreated disseminated nocardiosis: mortality approaches 100%.
• Treated pulmonary nocardiosis: mortality approximately 10 to 30%.
• Cerebral nocardiosis: overall death rate 22.8% in a systematic review of adult cases reported from 2000 to 2020, with better survival when surgery was added to antibiotics.
• Primary cutaneous nocardiosis in immunocompetent hosts: excellent prognosis with appropriate antibiotic therapy; very low mortality.
• Relapse rate: approximately 10% even after completing adequate treatment courses; relapse risk is higher in patients remaining on immunosuppression.

Special Populations

Solid organ transplant recipients represent the highest-risk group for severe nocardiosis. Lung transplant recipients have the greatest risk because the transplanted lung is directly exposed to inhaled organisms while being immunosuppressed locally. The calcineurin inhibitors (tacrolimus, cyclosporine) impair T-cell responses that are essential for controlling Nocardia. Some transplant centers use low-dose TMP-SMX prophylaxis (primarily for Pneumocystis) which may incidentally reduce nocardiosis rates. A 2024 individual-patient meta-analysis of three case-control studies (260 transplant recipients with nocardiosis and 519 without) found TMP-SMX prophylaxis linked to a much lower risk of nocardiosis (adjusted odds ratio 0.3, moderate certainty). Older age, current corticosteroid use, high calcineurin-inhibitor levels, recent acute rejection, a low lymphocyte count and heart transplant were linked to higher risk. Breakthrough infections (25% of cases) were still susceptible to TMP-SMX in a pooled 98%.

Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients with CD4 counts below 200 cells/mm³ are at substantially elevated risk. TMP-SMX prophylaxis for Pneumocystis in human immunodeficiency virus patients likely provides partial protection against nocardiosis.

Anti-TNF therapy recipients (for rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis) are an increasingly recognized at-risk population. The relative risk of nocardiosis is elevated approximately 3- to 6-fold compared to the general population, and cases have been reported with all agents in this class.

Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) patients have a specific defect in the reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase pathway that impairs neutrophil killing of catalase-positive organisms — a category that includes Nocardia. Nocardiosis is a sentinel infection for CGD and is a recognized reason to test for this diagnosis in a patient without other obvious immunodeficiency, particularly in younger patients or those with recurrent infections.

Immunocompetent patients (approximately 30% of cases) tend to have more localized disease, lower rates of central nervous system involvement, and better outcomes overall. Primary pulmonary nocardiosis in a seemingly immunocompetent older adult is well-recognized and may reflect subclinical immunosenescence or unrecognized mild immune deficiency.

The most important factor affecting outcome is the speed of diagnosis and initiation of appropriate therapy. Because nocardiosis so effectively mimics other conditions, and because the laboratory requires special instructions to recover the organism, reviews stress a high index of suspicion in any at-risk patient with subacute pulmonary disease, brain abscess, or unexplained cutaneous nodules spreading along lymphatics.

Back to Table of Contents

Key Research Papers

1. Wilson JW. Nocardiosis: updates and clinical overview. Mayo Clin Proc. 2012;87(4):403–407. — PubMed PMID: 22469352 · doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2011.11.016
2. Matulionyte R, Rohner P, Uçkay I, Lew D, Garbino J. Secular trends of nocardia infection over 15 years in a tertiary care hospital. J Clin Pathol. 2004;57(8):807–812. — PubMed PMID: 15280400
3. Lerner PI. Nocardiosis. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22(6):891–903. — PubMed PMID: 8783685 · doi:10.1093/clinids/22.6.891
4. Beaman BL, Beaman L. Nocardia species: host-parasite relationships. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1994;7(2):213–264. — PubMed PMID: 8055469 · doi:10.1128/CMR.7.2.213
5. Minero MV, Marín M, Cercenado E, Rabadán PM, Bouza E, Muñoz P. Nocardiosis at the turn of the century. Medicine (Baltimore). 2009;88(4):250–261. — PubMed PMID: 19593231 · doi:10.1097/md.0b013e3181afa1c8
6. Lebeaux D, Freund R, van Delden C, Guillot H, Marbus SD, Matignon M, et al. Outcome and treatment of nocardiosis after solid organ transplantation: new insights from a European study. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64(10):1396–1405. — PubMed PMID: 28329348
7. Torres HA, Reddy BT, Raad II, Tarrand J, Bodey GP, Hanna HA, et al. Nocardiosis in cancer patients. Medicine (Baltimore). 2002;81(5):388–397. — PubMed PMID: 12352633 · doi:10.1097/00005792-200209000-00004
8. Restrepo A, Clark NM; Infectious Diseases Community of Practice of the American Society of Transplantation. Nocardia infections in solid organ transplantation: guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Community of Practice of the American Society of Transplantation. Clin Transplant. 2019;33(9):e13509. — PubMed PMID: 30817024
9. Schlaberg R, Huard RC, Della-Latta P. Nocardia cyriacigeorgica, an emerging pathogen in the United States. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(1):265–273. — PubMed PMID: 18003809
10. Brown-Elliott BA, Ward SC, Crist CJ, Mann LB, Wilson RW, Wallace RJ Jr. In vitro activities of linezolid against multiple Nocardia species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001;45(4):1295–1297. — PubMed PMID: 11257051 · doi:10.1128/aac.45.4.1295-1297.2001
11. Kageyama A, Yazawa K, Ishikawa J, Hotta K, Nishimura K, Mikami Y. Nocardial infections in Japan from 1992 to 2001, including the first report of infection by Nocardia transvalensis. Eur J Epidemiol. 2004;19(4):383–389. — PubMed PMID: 15180109
12. Menéndez R, Cordero PJ, Santos M, Gobernado M, Marco V. Pulmonary infection with Nocardia species: a report of 10 cases and review. Eur Respir J. 1997;10(7):1542–1546. — PubMed PMID: 9230244
13. Meena DS, Kumar D, Bohra GK, Midha N, Garg MK. Clinical characteristics and treatment outcome of central nervous system nocardiosis: a systematic review of reported cases. Med Princ Pract. 2022;31(4):333–341. — PubMed PMID: 35700710
14. Passerini M, Nayfeh T, Yetmar ZA, Coussement J, Goodlet KJ, Lebeaux D, et al. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole significantly reduces the risk of nocardiosis in solid organ transplant recipients: systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2024;30(2):170–177. — PubMed PMID: 37865337

Back to Table of Contents

Connections

• Infectious Disease
• Tuberculosis
• Aspergillosis
• Mucormycosis
• Histoplasmosis
• Cryptococcosis
• Sporotrichosis
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
• Melioidosis

Back to Table of Contents

Featured Videos