Flaxseed Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) Omega-3 and Heart Health

Table of Contents

1. Alpha-Linolenic Acid Is Not Fish Oil: The Conversion Studies
2. How Much Alpha-Linolenic Acid Is in Flaxseed, and How Much Gets In
3. Alpha-Linolenic Acid and Heart Disease in Large Populations
4. The Flax-PAD Trial: Blood Pressure
5. Blood Pressure Across All the Trials
6. Cholesterol: What the Seed Does and the Oil Does Not
7. Flaxseed on Top of a Statin
8. How It Works: Oxylipins, Fibre and Lignans Together
9. The Alpha-Linolenic Acid and Prostate Cancer Question
10. How Much, in What Form, and Who Benefits Most
11. Key Research Papers
12. Connections
13. Featured Videos

Alpha-Linolenic Acid Is Not Fish Oil: The Conversion Studies

The cleanest way to measure how much alpha-linolenic acid becomes eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid is to feed people alpha-linolenic acid labelled with a heavy carbon isotope and follow the label through the blood for weeks. Graham Burdge's group at Southampton did exactly that, in men and women separately, and the two papers are the reference point for everything else.

• Young men (Burdge, Jones and Wootton 2002): six men ate labelled alpha-linolenic acid with a meal. About a third of it was burned for energy and breathed out as CO₂ within 24 hours. Labelled eicosapentaenoic acid and DPA (the intermediate between eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) appeared in blood over the following days, but no labelled docosahexaenoic acid was detectable at any point in 21 days. The title of the paper is the finding: eicosapentaenoic acid and DPA are the principal products of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in young men.
• Young women (Burdge and Wootton 2002): the same experiment. Estimated net conversion was about 21% to eicosapentaenoic acid, 6% to DPA and 9% to docosahexaenoic acid, with about 22% burned off. Women of reproductive age convert noticeably better than men — presumably because a developing foetus and breast milk need docosahexaenoic acid — but even here the docosahexaenoic acid yield is a small fraction of intake.

The 2009 review by Brenna and colleagues for the International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids pulled the supplementation studies together and reached the practical conclusion: on a Western diet rich in omega-6 linoleic acid, extra alpha-linolenic acid reliably raises eicosapentaenoic acid and DPA in blood and breast milk but has little effect on docosahexaenoic acid, and the only dependable way to raise docosahexaenoic acid is to eat preformed docosahexaenoic acid. That is the honest limit of flaxseed as an omega-3 source. If you eat no fish at all, flaxseed helps with eicosapentaenoic acid and does almost nothing for docosahexaenoic acid; an algae-based docosahexaenoic acid supplement is the vegetarian route to the latter. Oily fish such as salmon and sardines remain the whole-food source of both.

Evidence tier: isotope-tracer studies in small numbers of healthy adults, plus a consensus review.

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How Much Alpha-Linolenic Acid Is in Flaxseed, and How Much Gets In

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) FoodData Central puts flaxseed at 22.8 g of alpha-linolenic acid per 100 g, against 5.9 g of omega-6 linoleic acid — a ratio of nearly four to one in favour of omega-3, which is rare among plant foods (walnuts and chia are the other familiar alpha-linolenic acid sources, and neither matches flaxseed gram for gram). A level tablespoon of ground flaxseed, about 7 g, carries roughly 1.6 g alpha-linolenic acid; the 30 g a day used in the big trials carries about 6.8 g.

Getting it out of the seed is the catch. Austria and colleagues (2008) baked 30 g of whole seed, 30 g of milled seed, or flaxseed oil containing 6 g of alpha-linolenic acid into muffins and fed them to healthy adults for three months. After one month plasma alpha-linolenic acid had risen significantly in the oil and milled-seed groups, with the oil group highest; the whole-seed group showed no rise at all. The seed coat is hard enough that unchewed whole flaxseed passes through the gut with its oil still inside. Cunnane and colleagues (1993) had already shown the other side of that coin: 50 g of ground flaxseed a day raised plasma alpha-linolenic acid by the same amount as 20 g of flaxseed oil providing the same 12 g of alpha-linolenic acid, meaning that once ground, the seed's alpha-linolenic acid is essentially fully available. Grinding is what makes the difference, and the safety article covers storage of the ground seed.

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Alpha-Linolenic Acid and Heart Disease in Large Populations

If alpha-linolenic acid barely becomes docosahexaenoic acid, does it matter for the heart on its own? The cohort data say yes, modestly.

• Hu and colleagues (1999), the Nurses' Health Study: 76,283 women followed ten years, 232 fatal heart attacks. From the lowest to the highest fifth of alpha-linolenic acid intake the relative risk of fatal ischaemic heart disease ran 1.0, 0.99, 0.90, 0.67 and 0.55 — the top fifth had roughly half the risk of the bottom fifth, after adjusting for linoleic acid and other nutrients. The main food sources of alpha-linolenic acid in that cohort were oil-and-vinegar dressing and, notably, not flaxseed, so this is a finding about the fat, not the seed.
• Pan and colleagues (2012): a meta-analysis of 27 studies, 251,049 people and 15,327 cardiovascular events. Comparing the top with the bottom third of alpha-linolenic acid, whether measured in the diet or as a blood or fat-tissue biomarker, the pooled relative risk was 0.86 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.77–0.97) — a 14% lower risk. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid alone gave 0.90 (0.81–0.99). The heterogeneity was high, meaning the studies disagreed about the size of the benefit, but not about its direction.
• Naghshi and colleagues (2021), BMJ: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohorts on alpha-linolenic acid and death. Higher alpha-linolenic acid intake was associated with modestly lower all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, and with a small increase in cancer mortality that the authors flagged as needing further study. Both associations are small, and both are the kind of finding that cohort studies can suggest but not prove.

The Lyon Diet Heart Study (de Lorgeril and colleagues 1999) is the one randomised trial usually cited: heart-attack survivors assigned to a Mediterranean-style diet enriched with alpha-linolenic acid (through a canola-based spread) had far fewer cardiac events than controls over four years. It supports alpha-linolenic acid-rich eating patterns, but since the whole diet changed, it cannot isolate alpha-linolenic acid. Evidence tier: prospective cohorts, pooled, plus one dietary-pattern randomized controlled trial (RCT).

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The Flax-PAD Trial: Blood Pressure

The trial that changed how researchers see flaxseed was run in Winnipeg by Grant Pierce's group and published in Hypertension (Rodriguez-Leyva and colleagues 2013). It is known as Flax-PAD because it enrolled people with peripheral artery disease — blocked arteries in the legs, a group at very high cardiovascular risk, three-quarters of whom also had high blood pressure.

• Design: prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised; 110 patients; six months. Every day they ate one of a range of foods (bagels, muffins, pasta, buns) baked with 30 g of milled flaxseed, or matching foods without it.
• Compliance: plasma alpha-linolenic acid and enterolignans rose two- to fifty-fold in the flaxseed group and not at all in the placebo group. Body weight did not differ between groups at any point, so the effect was not weight loss.
• Result: after six months systolic blood pressure was about 10 mmHg lower and diastolic about 7 mmHg lower in the flaxseed group than the placebo group. Among patients who started with systolic pressure of 140 mmHg or above, the reductions were 15 mmHg systolic and 7 mmHg diastolic. Patients with normal blood pressure at entry saw no drop — the effect was selective for people who were hypertensive.

The authors described it as "one of the most potent antihypertensive effects achieved by a dietary intervention", and that is not overstated: a 10–15 mmHg systolic reduction is what a single blood-pressure drug typically delivers. Two cautions. It is one trial, in one unusually high-risk population, from one research group. And the food was prepared for the participants, which guarantees a daily 30 g that a home cook has to remember to eat. Evidence tier: one double-blind randomized controlled trial, 110 patients, six months.

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Blood Pressure Across All the Trials

Two meta-analyses published within a year of each other pooled every controlled flaxseed trial with a blood-pressure measurement. Both found a real effect and both found it much smaller than Flax-PAD's, which is what happens when one large effect is averaged with many small trials in healthier people over shorter periods.

• Khalesi, Irwin and Schubert (2015) — 11 studies, 14 trials, at least two weeks of flaxseed or a flax product. Systolic pressure fell by 1.77 mmHg (95% confidence interval −3.45 to −0.09) and diastolic by 1.58 mmHg (−2.64 to −0.52). In subgroups, the diastolic benefit was clearer with whole (ground) flaxseed than with oil or lignan extracts (−1.93 mmHg) and with trials lasting twelve weeks or more (−2.17 mmHg).
• Ursoniu and colleagues (2016) — 15 trials, 19 treatment arms, 1,302 participants. Systolic pressure fell by 2.85 mmHg (95% confidence interval −5.37 to −0.33) with a similar diastolic reduction.

A two-to-three millimetre average drop sounds trivial, and for an individual it is. Across a population it is not: shifts of that size in average blood pressure are associated with measurable falls in stroke and heart-disease rates. The more useful reading of the two meta-analyses is the pattern inside them — ground seed, not oil; twelve weeks or more, not two; and people who are actually hypertensive — which is exactly the situation in which Flax-PAD found its large effect. Evidence tier: meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs).

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Cholesterol: What the Seed Does and the Oil Does Not

The cholesterol literature is larger and older, and it is where the seed-versus-oil distinction is sharpest.

• Pan and colleagues (2009) — meta-analysis of 28 randomised trials. Across all flaxseed products, total cholesterol fell by 0.10 mmol/L and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) by 0.08 mmol/L (about 4 and 3 mg/dL) — tiny. But split by product, whole ground flaxseed lowered total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by 0.21 and 0.16 mmol/L and lignan extracts by 0.28 and 0.16, while flaxseed oil had no significant effect. The reductions were larger in women, especially postmenopausal women, and in people whose cholesterol was high to begin with.
• Hadi and colleagues (2020) — the updated meta-analysis, 62 randomised trials and 3,772 participants. Flaxseed supplementation significantly reduced total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein and triglycerides, again with the clearest effects from whole flaxseed and in people with raised lipids.
• Bloedon and colleagues (2008) — one of the better individual trials: 62 men and postmenopausal women with low-density lipoprotein between 130 and 200 mg/dL, randomised to 40 g a day of ground flaxseed baked goods or matching wheat-bran products for ten weeks. Flaxseed lowered low-density lipoprotein by 13% at five weeks (P < 0.005) but the difference had shrunk to 7% and lost significance by ten weeks. It also lowered lipoprotein(a) by a net 14% and improved insulin resistance. The fading low-density lipoprotein effect is reported here because it is in the paper; it may reflect the comparison group's own improvement on the wheat-bran diet.
• Dodin and colleagues (2005) — 199 menopausal women, 40 g a day for a full year against a wheat-germ placebo. Total cholesterol fell by 0.20 mmol/L more than placebo (P = 0.012); high-density lipoprotein (HDL) fell slightly too. The authors called the lipid effect favourable but not clinically significant, which is fair for a healthy population.
• Cunnane and colleagues (1993, 1995) — the early Toronto feeding studies at 50 g a day: low-density lipoprotein fell 18% in the first and up to 8% in the second, over four weeks.

Why the oil fails where the seed succeeds points at the mechanism: the cholesterol effect comes mostly from the soluble fibre and the lignans, not from the alpha-linolenic acid. The fibre article covers Kristensen's Copenhagen study showing flaxseed fibre alone lowered low-density lipoprotein by 15% and increased faecal fat excretion by half. One trial of flaxseed oil (Kawakami and colleagues 2015, 15 Japanese men, 10 g oil a day for 12 weeks in a crossover) did find a reduction in small dense low-density lipoprotein particles, so the oil is not useless — but the seed is the studied food. Evidence tier: meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials, several individual randomized controlled trials.

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Flaxseed on Top of a Statin

The most practically useful cholesterol finding comes from the Flax-PAD cohort. Edel and colleagues (2015) reported the lipid outcomes: in these patients with established artery disease, 30 g of milled flaxseed a day lowered low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by 15% within one month (P = 0.05), with the difference from placebo narrowing at six months and gone by twelve. The interesting part was the subgroup already taking cholesterol-lowering drugs, mostly statins: in them, flaxseed lowered low-density lipoprotein further still, beyond what the medication alone was achieving. The title says it precisely — flaxseed "lowers it beyond the effects of cholesterol-lowering medications alone".

This matters because most people with high cardiovascular risk are on a statin, and the question they actually have is not "flaxseed or statin?" but "is it worth adding?" The answer from the only trial to test it in a high-risk population on medication is yes, modestly, with no interaction problems reported. It is an addition to treatment, not an alternative. Evidence tier: pre-specified analysis of one double-blind randomized controlled trial.

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How It Works: Oxylipins, Fibre and Lignans Together

The Winnipeg group went back into the Flax-PAD blood samples to ask how a seed lowers blood pressure by 10 mmHg. Caligiuri and colleagues (2014) measured oxylipins — signalling molecules the body makes from polyunsaturated fats, several of which tighten or relax blood vessels. Flaxseed changed the oxylipin profile in a specific way: it reduced the products of an enzyme called soluble epoxide hydrolase, which normally breaks down vessel-relaxing epoxy fatty acids. The rise in plasma alpha-linolenic acid was inversely related to blood pressure, and the oxylipin shift accounted for a large part of the effect statistically. In plain terms, the alpha-linolenic acid appears to inhibit an enzyme that would otherwise destroy the body's own vasodilators — the same enzyme several experimental blood-pressure drugs target.

The cholesterol effect runs through different components. The mucilage forms a viscous gel in the small intestine that traps bile acids and dietary fat, forcing the liver to draw cholesterol from the blood to make more bile; Kristensen's group measured the faecal fat directly. Lignans lower cholesterol independently — Zhang and colleagues (2008) found a purified SDG extract at 600 mg a day lowered total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol by 22–24% in 55 hypercholesterolaemic adults over eight weeks — though that is an extract dose far above what food supplies. The three components address three different targets, which is the case for eating the whole seed rather than any one fraction of it.

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The Alpha-Linolenic Acid and Prostate Cancer Question

Any honest page on alpha-linolenic acid has to address this. In the 1990s and early 2000s, several studies found that men with the highest alpha-linolenic acid intake or blood levels had more prostate cancer, and it became a standing worry about flaxseed and about alpha-linolenic acid generally. Three meta-analyses trace how the evidence has moved.

• Brouwer, Katan and Zock (2004) pooled nine cohort and case-control studies and found a combined relative risk of 1.70 (95% confidence interval 1.12–2.58) for prostate cancer with high alpha-linolenic acid — a 70% increase — alongside a 21% lower risk of fatal heart disease. They called the prostate finding "of concern".
• Simon, Chen and Bent (2009) pooled 16 studies. The association had shrunk to a relative risk of 1.20 (1.01–1.43), barely significant, and was inconsistent across study types and decades.
• Carleton and colleagues (2013) pooled the dietary-intake studies separately by design and found no significant overall association between dietary alpha-linolenic acid and prostate cancer.

The pattern — a large association in early, mostly retrospective studies that shrinks toward nothing as more and better prospective data arrive — is characteristic of confounding rather than cause. In the older American cohorts the main alpha-linolenic acid sources were red meat and mayonnaise, not seeds, and the worry may always have been about the company alpha-linolenic acid kept. Meanwhile the direct evidence on flaxseed and the prostate, covered in the lignans article, is a randomised trial in which 30 g of flaxseed a day slowed prostate tumour cell division. The question is not fully closed, but the weight of evidence no longer supports avoiding flaxseed on prostate grounds. Evidence tier: three meta-analyses of observational studies, moving from positive to null.

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How Much, in What Form, and Who Benefits Most

Amount. The blood-pressure and statin-add-on trials used 30 g a day, about four level tablespoons of ground seed, baked into everyday foods. The cholesterol trials used 40–50 g. Two tablespoons a day (about 14 g, 3.2 g alpha-linolenic acid) is a realistic long-term habit and sits within the range where the meta-analyses found effects; four is the trial dose for someone specifically working on blood pressure. Above that there is no evidence of extra benefit.

Form. Ground, always — whole seed raised blood alpha-linolenic acid not at all in a three-month trial. Baked is fine: Cunnane (1995) found baking did not reduce the alpha-linolenic acid in flaxseed muffins and did not raise oxidation markers. Stirred into porridge, yoghurt or a smoothie, or added to bread and pancake batter, are all equivalent. The oil delivers alpha-linolenic acid but not the blood-pressure or cholesterol effects, because those need the fibre and lignans; it is a source of a fat, not a substitute for the food.

Who benefits most. People with high blood pressure (the effect was selective for them in Flax-PAD and absent in normotensive participants); people with raised low-density lipoprotein, including those already on a statin; postmenopausal women, in whom the cholesterol effect was largest; and anyone who eats no oily fish and wants a plant source of omega-3, with the docosahexaenoic acid caveat above. People with normal blood pressure and normal cholesterol should expect little measurable change and eat it for the fibre and the lignans instead.

What to pair it with. Flaxseed is not a replacement for fish. A pattern with two servings of oily fish a week for eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, plus daily ground flaxseed for alpha-linolenic acid, fibre and lignans, covers both halves of the omega-3 story with whole foods. Walnuts and chia seeds are the other alpha-linolenic acid-rich whole foods and can be rotated with it.

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Key Research Papers

Author names, titles and journals are plain text; only the PMID or DOI is a link. Every identifier below was checked against PubMed before publication.

1. Rodriguez-Leyva D, Weighell W, Edel AL, et al. (2013). Potent antihypertensive action of dietary flaxseed in hypertensive patients. Hypertension. — PubMed PMID: 24126178
2. Edel AL, Rodriguez-Leyva D, Maddaford TG, et al. (2015). Dietary flaxseed independently lowers circulating cholesterol and lowers it beyond the effects of cholesterol-lowering medications alone in patients with peripheral artery disease. The Journal of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 25694068
3. Caligiuri SP, Aukema HM, Ravandi A, Guzman R, Dibrov E, Pierce GN (2014). Flaxseed consumption reduces blood pressure in patients with hypertension by altering circulating oxylipins via an α-linolenic acid-induced inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase. Hypertension. — PubMed PMID: 24777981
4. Khalesi S, Irwin C, Schubert M (2015). Flaxseed consumption may reduce blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials. The Journal of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 25740909
5. Ursoniu S, Sahebkar A, Andrica F, Serban C, Banach M (2016). Effects of flaxseed supplements on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trial. Clinical Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 26071633
6. Pan A, Yu D, Demark-Wahnefried W, Franco OH, Lin X (2009). Meta-analysis of the effects of flaxseed interventions on blood lipids. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 19515737
7. Hadi A, Askarpour M, Salamat S, Ghaedi E, Symonds ME, Miraghajani M (2020). Effect of flaxseed supplementation on lipid profile: an updated systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of sixty-two randomized controlled trials. Pharmacological Research. — PubMed PMID: 31899314
8. Bloedon LT, Balikai S, Chittams J, et al. (2008). Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk factors: results from a double blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 18460483
9. Dodin S, Lemay A, Jacques H, Légaré F, Forest JC, Mâsse B (2005). The effects of flaxseed dietary supplement on lipid profile, bone mineral density, and symptoms in menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, wheat germ placebo-controlled clinical trial. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. — PubMed PMID: 15613422
10. Cunnane SC, Ganguli S, Menard C, et al. (1993). High alpha-linolenic acid flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum): some nutritional properties in humans. The British Journal of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 8098222
11. Cunnane SC, Hamadeh MJ, Liede AC, Thompson LU, Wolever TM, Jenkins DJ (1995). Nutritional attributes of traditional flaxseed in healthy young adults. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 7825540
12. Kawakami Y, Yamanaka-Okumura H, Naniwa-Kuroki Y, Sakuma M, Taketani Y, Takeda E (2015). Flaxseed oil intake reduces serum small dense low-density lipoprotein concentrations in Japanese men: a randomized, double blind, crossover study. Nutrition Journal. — PubMed PMID: 25896182
13. Zhang W, Wang X, Liu Y, et al. (2008). Dietary flaxseed lignan extract lowers plasma cholesterol and glucose concentrations in hypercholesterolaemic subjects. The British Journal of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 18053310
14. Austria JA, Richard MN, Chahine MN, et al. (2008). Bioavailability of alpha-linolenic acid in subjects after ingestion of three different forms of flaxseed. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 18689552
15. Burdge GC, Jones AE, Wootton SA (2002). Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in young men. The British Journal of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 12323085
16. Burdge GC, Wootton SA (2002). Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. The British Journal of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 12323090
17. Brenna JT, Salem N Jr, Sinclair AJ, Cunnane SC (2009). alpha-Linolenic acid supplementation and conversion to n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in humans. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids. — PubMed PMID: 19269799
18. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. (1999). Dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid and risk of fatal ischemic heart disease among women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 10232627
19. Pan A, Chen M, Chowdhury R, et al. (2012). α-Linolenic acid and risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 23076616
20. Naghshi S, Aune D, Beyene J, Mobarak S, Asadi M, Sadeghi O (2021). Dietary intake and biomarkers of alpha linolenic acid and risk of all cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMJ. — PubMed PMID: 34645650
21. de Lorgeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, Monjaud I, Delaye J, Mamelle N (1999). Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. — PubMed PMID: 9989963
22. Brouwer IA, Katan MB, Zock PL (2004). Dietary alpha-linolenic acid is associated with reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease, but increased prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis. The Journal of Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 15051847
23. Simon JA, Chen YH, Bent S (2009). The relation of alpha-linolenic acid to the risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 19321563
24. Carleton AJ, Sievenpiper JL, de Souza R, McKeown-Eyssen G, Jenkins DJ (2013). Case-control and prospective studies of dietary α-linolenic acid intake and prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis. BMJ Open. — PubMed PMID: 23674441

PubMed Topic Searches

1. PubMed: flaxseed and blood pressure in randomised trials
2. PubMed: alpha-linolenic acid conversion to EPA and DHA in humans
3. PubMed: flaxseed and LDL cholesterol meta-analyses

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Connections

• All Food
• Flaxseed
• Flaxseed Benefits: What the Evidence Actually Shows
• Flaxseed: Nutrient Profile
• Flaxseed Lignans and Hormone-Related Cancers
• Flaxseed Fibre, Constipation and Blood Sugar
• Ground vs Whole Flaxseed, Flax Oil, Cyanogens and Safety
• Salmon
• Sardines
• Walnuts
• Chia Seeds
• Hypertension
• Cholesterol Management
• Peripheral Artery Disease
• Atherosclerosis

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