Macadamias: Palmitoleic Acid and Metabolic Health

Table of Contents

1. What Palmitoleic Acid Is
2. Where It Comes From: Macadamias, Sea Buckthorn and the Body Itself
3. The “Lipokine” Idea From Animal Research
4. A Blood Level Is Not the Same as Eating It
5. Human Studies Linking It With Better Insulin Sensitivity
6. Human Studies Linking It With Liver Fat-Making and Fatty Liver
7. Cis and Trans: The Dairy Molecule Is a Different One
8. The Feeding Trial: Palmitoleic Acid and LDL Cholesterol
9. The Pure Palmitoleic Acid Trial: A Protocol, Not a Result
10. What the Macadamia Trials Found for Glucose, Insulin and Weight
11. Animal and Cell Studies of Macadamia Oil
12. What Is Not Known
13. Who the Research Raises Questions For
14. Connections
15. Key Research Papers
16. Featured Videos

What Palmitoleic Acid Is

Fats are built from fatty acids — chains of carbon atoms. Palmitoleic acid has a chain of 16 carbons with one double bond, which makes it a monounsaturated fat, the same family as the oleic acid of olive oil. Chemists write it as 16:1 n-7: 16 carbons, 1 double bond, and that double bond sitting 7 carbons from the tail end of the chain. Because of that position it is sometimes marketed as an “omega-7” fat, by analogy with the omega-3 and omega-6 fats. Unlike those two families, omega-7 fats are not essential: the body can make all it needs.

The body makes palmitoleic acid from palmitic acid (16:0), the most common saturated fat in the human body and diet. An enzyme called stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1) inserts the double bond. Palmitoleic acid is one of the more abundant fatty acids in blood and tissues, particularly fat tissue and the liver (Frigolet 2017).

There are two shapes of the molecule. The form the body makes, and the form in macadamias, is cis-palmitoleic acid. A trans form also exists; it comes mainly from the fat of cattle, sheep and goats and from dairy products (Frigolet 2017). The two forms behave differently in research, and that difference matters later on this page.

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Where It Comes From: Macadamias, Sea Buckthorn and the Body Itself

Very few foods contain much palmitoleic acid. The two plant sources that appear again and again in the research are the macadamia nut and the oil of the sea buckthorn berry. A study of sea buckthorn fruit oil describes it as “rich in palmitoleic acid” (Gao 2017), and an Irish analysis of five nut oils found “substantial levels” of palmitoleic acid in macadamia, unlike walnuts, almonds, peanuts and hazelnuts, where oleic acid was the main monounsaturated fat (Maguire 2004). A 1994 trial team in Australia described macadamia oil as “at least one potentially large source” of it (Nestel 1994).

The USDA FoodData Central record for raw macadamia nuts (FDC 170178) gives these fat figures per 100 g:

The 1 oz column is the 100 g value multiplied by 0.28. So a 28 g handful carries roughly 3.6 g of palmitoleic acid — and, unusually, about twice as much of the unsaturated 16-carbon fat as of the saturated one. In most foods and in the human body the balance runs the other way.

The third source is the body itself. Because SCD1 turns palmitic acid into palmitoleic acid, a person who eats almost none still has it in the blood. As the following sections show, how much the body makes depends on its metabolic state, which is the root of most of the confusion about this fat.

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The “Lipokine” Idea From Animal Research

The interest in palmitoleic acid comes mainly from laboratory work. Experiments in mice showed that fat tissue releases palmitoleic acid into the blood and that it then acts on distant organs such as the liver and muscle. On that basis researchers proposed calling it a lipokine — a “lipid hormone”, a fat that carries signals between organs the way a hormone does (Frigolet 2017; Tricò 2020).

A 2017 review summarised the laboratory picture: in cell-culture experiments, the cis form influenced the survival of insulin-making beta cells in the pancreas, insulin release, muscle response to insulin and the behaviour of fat cells; and in animal studies, feeding cis-palmitoleic acid, or sources of it such as macadamia oil, partly prevented the metabolic damage caused by high-fat or high-sugar diets (Nunes 2017). The authors of the pure-palmitoleic-acid trial protocol describe the same preclinical findings — improved glucose tolerance, blood fats and fat build-up in muscle and liver in animal models (Cetin 2023).

These are findings in mice, rats and cells. The lipokine idea is a hypothesis about how human metabolism might work; it has not been shown in a controlled human trial that eating or taking palmitoleic acid produces these effects.

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A Blood Level Is Not the Same as Eating It

Almost all of the human evidence on palmitoleic acid and insulin comes from measuring it in blood, not from giving it to people. That distinction is the key to reading this research.

• Most blood palmitoleic acid is made inside the body. Its level reflects how active SCD1 is and how much new fat the liver is making. Researchers use the ratio of palmitoleic to palmitic acid in blood fats as an index of that enzyme's activity (Lee 2015).
• Diet also moves it. When 17 men with high cholesterol ate 40–90 g of macadamias a day for 4 weeks, palmitoleic acid and two related monounsaturated fats rose in their blood (Garg 2003). So eating macadamias does raise the blood level — but a high blood level in an observational study does not tell you whether it came from food or from the liver.
• The level tracks body fat. In a large European cohort, blood palmitoleic acid rose with fat mass (Tricò 2020).

So when a study reports that people with more palmitoleic acid in their blood have better (or worse) insulin sensitivity, it is describing a marker that sits at the crossroads of diet, liver fat production and fat tissue release. It is not a test of what happens when someone eats macadamias.

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Human Studies Linking It With Better Insulin Sensitivity

Insulin sensitivity means how readily the body's tissues respond to insulin and take up sugar from the blood. Its opposite, insulin resistance, is a central feature of prediabetes and type 2 diabetes.

The European RISC cohort (2020)

The largest study in this area measured free fatty acids in the blood of 1,234 non-diabetic adults from the Relationship between Insulin Sensitivity and Cardiovascular disease (RISC) study, and again in 924 of them three years later. Insulin sensitivity was measured with a hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamp, the reference method, in which insulin is infused and researchers measure how much sugar must be given to keep blood sugar steady. After adjusting for age, sex, BMI, body fat and other fatty acids, higher blood palmitoleic acid went with better whole-body insulin sensitivity, lower liver insulin resistance, slightly better beta-cell function and lower blood sugar two hours after a glucose drink. People with high palmitoleic acid did not show the drop in insulin sensitivity that otherwise came with high palmitic acid. Over three years, a rise in palmitoleic acid went with a small rise in insulin sensitivity. The authors read this as support for palmitoleic acid as a beneficial lipokine released by fat tissue (Tricò 2020).

The associations were real but modest — standardised coefficients of 0.07 to 0.24 — and the study is observational: it shows the two travel together, not that one causes the other.

Type 1 diabetes versus controls (2013)

A US study of 25 people with type 1 diabetes and 25 without, all measured with a three-stage insulin clamp, found that free (unattached) palmitoleic acid in plasma went with better insulin sensitivity in the people without diabetes, but not in the people with type 1 diabetes. In the same study, palmitoleic acid held inside plasma triglycerides went the other way: higher levels went with worse insulin sensitivity of fat tissue (Bergman 2013). Even in one small study, then, the direction depended on which blood fraction was measured.

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Human Studies Linking It With Liver Fat-Making and Fatty Liver

The liver can turn surplus carbohydrate into new fat, a process called de novo lipogenesis (“fat-making from scratch”). Its first product is palmitic acid, and SCD1 then turns some of that into palmitoleic acid. When the liver is making a lot of fat, palmitoleic acid in the blood rises as a by-product. In non-alcoholic fatty liver disease this process is often running high.

The Dallas fat-making study (2015)

Researchers at the University of Texas Southwestern gave 24 overweight adults heavy water (deuterium-labelled water) to drink for 10 days, which lets new fat made by the liver be measured directly, and measured liver fat with magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Palmitoleic acid in VLDL triglycerides — the fat particles the liver sends out into the blood — correlated with measured liver fat-making (r = 0.56), with liver fat (r = 0.53) and with insulin resistance of fat tissue (r = 0.56). People with high liver fat (an average of 18.4%) had 45% more palmitoleic acid in these particles than people with low liver fat (3.1%), and their liver fat-making was 2.5 times higher. The authors proposed this palmitoleic acid level as a biomarker of elevated liver fat where isotope testing is not possible, while calling for larger confirming studies. They also noted that because so little palmitoleic acid comes from the diet, it is a cleaner signal of liver fat-making than palmitic acid, which the diet supplies in quantity (Lee 2015).

The reviews

A 2017 review of the whole field found mixed cardiovascular effects and correlations with obesity and fatty liver that run in both directions, while describing a more consistent link with protection from insulin resistance and diabetes (Frigolet 2017). A second 2017 review was more cautious about the form that matters for macadamias: it found the human data on blood cis-palmitoleic acid “still controversial” (Nunes 2017).

Putting the two sides together

Both sets of findings can be true at once. Palmitoleic acid released by healthy fat tissue may be a helpful signal, while palmitoleic acid pumped out by a fat-making liver is a sign of metabolic strain. A single blood number cannot tell which source dominates. That is why a high blood level appears on both sides of the ledger in the research, and why it says little on its own about the effect of eating a food that contains it.

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Cis and Trans: The Dairy Molecule Is a Different One

The cis and trans forms of palmitoleic acid have the same atoms but a different shape around the double bond. The body makes the cis form; the trans form (trans-16:1 n-7) comes mainly from ruminant fat and dairy foods, although the body makes a little too (Frigolet 2017).

This matters because a review of the human studies found that the positive associations with insulin sensitivity and with a lower onset of type 2 diabetes were seen mainly for trans-palmitoleic acid in plasma phospholipids, while the data on cis-palmitoleic acid were still controversial (Nunes 2017). Macadamias supply the cis form. Findings about trans-palmitoleic acid, which mostly reflect dairy fat intake, cannot be carried over to macadamias.

Trans-palmitoleic acid from dairy is also a different matter from the industrial trans fats once made by partially hydrogenating vegetable oils, which are covered on the trans fats page.

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The Feeding Trial: Palmitoleic Acid and LDL Cholesterol

One controlled feeding trial asked the direct question: does palmitoleic acid act on blood cholesterol like an unsaturated fat or like a saturated one? It was prompted by macadamia oil being a large potential source of it.

• Who and how: 34 men with high cholesterol in Adelaide, Australia, ate three test diets in random order for 3 weeks each. Fat supplements adjusted each diet so that it was enriched in palmitic acid (+4% of energy), palmitoleic acid (+4% of energy) or oleic acid (+3% of energy). Dietary cholesterol was kept low, under 165 mg a day.
• Result: total and LDL cholesterol were similar on the palmitoleic and palmitic diets, and both were significantly higher than on the oleic acid diet. HDL cholesterol was significantly lower on the palmitoleic diet than on the palmitic diet.
• The authors' conclusion: palmitoleic acid “behaves like a saturated and not a monounsaturated fatty acid in its effect on LDL cholesterol”, at least in men with high cholesterol (Nestel 1994).

For scale: 4% of energy on a 2,000 kcal day works out to about 9 g of fat, roughly the palmitoleic acid in 70 g of macadamias by the USDA figure (this is arithmetic, not a dose given in the trial). The trial tested the isolated fatty acid, not the whole nut. The whole-nut trials, described on the heart health page, are a different test: when macadamias replaced foods higher in saturated fat, LDL fell compared with an average American diet (Griel 2008), and in 17 men with high cholesterol LDL fell 5.3% and HDL rose 7.9% over 4 weeks, in a before-and-after design (Garg 2003). The nut brings far more oleic acid than palmitoleic acid, and it displaces other fats from the diet, so the two kinds of trial do not contradict each other — but the 1994 result is a reason the cholesterol benefit of macadamias is not usually credited to palmitoleic acid.

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The Pure Palmitoleic Acid Trial: A Protocol, Not a Result

Because observational studies cannot settle cause and effect, a research group at Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School published the design of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. It is designed to test whether purified palmitoleic acid increases insulin sensitivity and reduces liver fat-making in overweight and obese adults with prediabetes (Cetin 2023).

• What makes it unusual: the authors describe it as the first study to use pure (over 90%) palmitoleic acid containing less than 0.3% palmitic acid. They argue that palmitic acid, which travels with palmitoleic acid in most natural sources and earlier supplements, masks its effects.
• What it reports: the paper is a protocol — a description of the planned trial. It contains no results. Its statements that palmitoleic acid improves insulin sensitivity and liver fat rest on observational human data and animal models, which is exactly what the trial was designed to test.
• Disclosure: the paper states that one author holds grant funding and a consulting role with the trial's commercial sponsor.

Until results from a trial like this are published, there is no controlled human evidence that taking palmitoleic acid improves insulin sensitivity.

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What the Macadamia Trials Found for Glucose, Insulin and Weight

If palmitoleic acid from food improved blood-sugar control, the trials in which people ate macadamias would be the place to see it. The trials in the research record for this page did not find that.

Free-living adults with abdominal obesity (2023)

In a randomised crossover trial at Loma Linda University, 35 adults with abdominal obesity and raised cardiometabolic risk ate their usual diet plus macadamias, supplying about 15% of daily calories, for 8 weeks, and their usual diet without nuts for 8 weeks, with a 2-week washout between. Total fat and monounsaturated fat intake rose, while saturated fat intake did not change. There were no significant changes in glycaemic (blood-sugar) measures, and no significant changes in weight, BMI, waist size or body fat. Total and LDL cholesterol fell by 2.1% and 4%, but these drops were not statistically significant (Jones 2023). The trial does show that adding this calorie-dense nut for 8 weeks did not lead to weight or fat gain in these adults.

Men with high cholesterol (2003)

The Australian trial in 17 men eating 40–90 g a day for 4 weeks raised blood palmitoleic acid and improved the lipid profile; its abstract reports no blood-sugar or insulin outcome (Garg 2003).

A single macadamia-oil meal (2014)

A Danish study gave a meal with 72% of its energy from monounsaturated fat, as macadamia nut oil, to 17 first-degree relatives of people with type 2 diabetes and 17 people without that family history. Blood fats, insulin, glucose and gut hormones over the next four hours did not differ between the two groups; gene activity in muscle and fat tissue did differ in a pattern the authors read as early defects in fat handling in the relatives (Pietraszek 2014). The study compared two groups of people, not macadamia oil against another fat, so it does not show whether the oil helped or harmed glucose control.

A small snack study (2024)

In a Chinese crossover study of 17 healthy young women monitored with continuous glucose sensors, 70 kcal snacks of chicken breast, apple or macadamia were compared with no snack. A macadamia snack eaten mid-morning was followed by higher insulin resistance after lunch than no snack; eaten just before lunch it made no difference. The chicken snack steadied glucose and lowered insulin resistance; the macadamia snack did not, at either time (Lou 2024). This was a small, short study of one-off snacks in healthy people.

What these trials add up to

None of the macadamia trials here showed an improvement in blood sugar, insulin or insulin sensitivity. The 2023 trial found no change in glycaemic measures over 8 weeks; the 2024 snack study found no benefit and one unfavourable comparison. The cholesterol findings are covered in the sibling article on heart health and monounsaturated fats.

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Animal and Cell Studies of Macadamia Oil

The more striking metabolic results come from animals. All of the studies below were done in mice, rats or cells.

• Obese mice (2014): mice on a high-fat diet given macadamia oil by stomach tube three times a week for 12 weeks had smaller fat cells and less inflammation in fat tissue and in immune cells called macrophages than high-fat-diet mice given water (Lima 2014).
• High-fat-diet mice, short term (2014): in a 14-day mouse study, swapping the soybean oil in a saturated-fat-rich diet for macadamia oil did not change blood sugar, liver glucose production, body weight or fat-pad weight; mice given linseed oil instead showed no gain in body weight or fat-pad weight over normal-diet mice (Barrena 2014). This is a null result for macadamia oil.
• Hyperlipidaemic mice and liver cells (2023, 2024): two Chinese studies reported that macadamia oil lowered cholesterol, triglycerides and liver fat and raised antioxidant enzyme activity in high-fat-diet mice, and reduced fat build-up in liver cells grown in the laboratory, with changes in the AMPK and Nrf2 signalling pathways that control fat-making and antioxidant defences (Shuai 2023; Zhang 2024).
• Sea buckthorn fruit oil (2017): an extract of sea buckthorn fruit oil, described as rich in palmitoleic acid, increased glucose uptake in insulin-resistant liver cells and lowered blood sugar by 10–14% in diabetic rats over 4 weeks at the two higher doses (Gao 2017). The extract was not pure palmitoleic acid.

These studies used oil, not whole nuts, often at doses scaled to body weight that are far above what people eat. They suggest possible mechanisms; they are not evidence of an effect in people.

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What Is Not Known

• Whether eating palmitoleic acid changes insulin sensitivity in people. No controlled human trial in the research record for this page has reported that result; the pure-palmitoleic-acid trial was published as a protocol only (Cetin 2023).
• Whether the blood-marker findings are cause or consequence. Higher blood palmitoleic acid goes with better insulin sensitivity in some cohorts (Tricò 2020) and with liver fat-making and fatty liver in others (Lee 2015). Observational studies cannot separate the two.
• How much of the palmitoleic acid in macadamias reaches the tissues where the lipokine idea says it acts. Eating macadamias raises blood levels (Garg 2003), but no study here measured the downstream effect in liver or muscle.
• Whether cis-palmitoleic acid shares the associations seen for the dairy trans form. The review evidence says the cis data are unresolved (Nunes 2017).
• Heart outcomes. A large 2014 meta-analysis of fatty-acid blood markers and coronary disease found no clear link for total circulating monounsaturated fat (relative risk 1.06, 95% CI 0.97–1.17) and noted that associations varied between individual fatty acids (Chowdhury 2014). No trial has measured heart attacks or deaths in relation to palmitoleic acid intake.
• Long-term effects of macadamias on blood sugar. The longest macadamia trial here lasted 8 weeks (Jones 2023). There are no long-term trials in people with diabetes or prediabetes.

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Who the Research Raises Questions For

• People watching LDL cholesterol. In the one controlled feeding trial, isolated palmitoleic acid raised LDL as much as palmitic acid did, compared with oleic acid, in men with high cholesterol (Nestel 1994). This finding is about the isolated fatty acid and concentrated sources of it; the whole-nut trials showed LDL falling when macadamias replaced higher-saturated-fat foods (Griel 2008).
• People interpreting a fatty-acid blood test. Some laboratory panels report palmitoleic acid or an “omega-7” value. The research shows that a high value can reflect liver fat-making and liver fat (Lee 2015) as well as diet, so it is not a straightforward measure of intake.
• People counting calories. Macadamias supply about 718 kcal per 100 g in the USDA record, the most of the common nuts. The 8-week free-living trial found no weight gain at about 15% of daily calories (Jones 2023), but that is one trial in 35 adults.
• People with tree nut allergy. Macadamia is a tree nut; allergy is covered on the main Macadamias page.

Questions about blood sugar, fatty liver or cholesterol treatment belong with a clinician, who can interpret tests such as fasting insulin, HOMA-IR and a lipid panel in context.

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Connections

• Nuts — all nut pages
• Macadamias — the main topic page
• Macadamias — Benefits Deep Dive — the hub for these articles
• Macadamias: Nutrient Profile — the full composition table
• Heart Health and Monounsaturated Fats — the cholesterol trials
• Oil, Tocotrienols and Oxidative Stability — the oil itself
• Insulin Resistance — what insulin sensitivity measures
• Prediabetes — the group the pure palmitoleic acid trial targets
• Type 2 Diabetes — the disease these markers predict
• Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease — where blood palmitoleic acid runs high
• Metabolic Syndrome — the cluster of risk factors
• Obesity — blood palmitoleic acid tracks fat mass
• HOMA-IR — a common insulin-resistance index
• Lipid Panel — the LDL and HDL numbers
• Olive Oil — the classic oleic acid food
• Trans Fats — industrial trans fats, a different group

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Key Research Papers

1. Nestel P, Clifton P, Noakes M. Effects of increasing dietary palmitoleic acid compared with palmitic and oleic acids on plasma lipids of hypercholesterolemic men. Journal of lipid research. 1994;35(4):656-62. PubMed PMID: 8006520
2. Tricò D, Mengozzi A, Nesti L, et al. Circulating palmitoleic acid is an independent determinant of insulin sensitivity, beta cell function and glucose tolerance in non-diabetic individuals: a longitudinal analysis. Diabetologia. 2020;63(1):206-218. PubMed PMID: 31676981
3. Lee JJ, Lambert JE, Hovhannisyan Y, et al. Palmitoleic acid is elevated in fatty liver disease and reflects hepatic lipogenesis. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2015;101(1):34-43. PubMed PMID: 25527748
4. Bergman BC, Howard D, Schauer IE, et al. The importance of palmitoleic acid to adipocyte insulin resistance and whole-body insulin sensitivity in type 1 diabetes. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2013;98(1):E40-50. PubMed PMID: 23150678
5. Cetin E, Pedersen B, Porter LM, et al. Protocol for a randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial using pure palmitoleic acid to ameliorate insulin resistance and lipogenesis in overweight and obese subjects with prediabetes. Frontiers in endocrinology. 2023;14:1306528. PubMed PMID: 38313838
6. Frigolet ME, Gutiérrez-Aguilar R. The Role of the Novel Lipokine Palmitoleic Acid in Health and Disease. Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.). 2017;8(1):173S-181S. PubMed PMID: 28096141
7. Nunes EA, Rafacho A. Implications of Palmitoleic Acid (Palmitoleate) On Glucose Homeostasis, Insulin Resistance and Diabetes. Current drug targets. 2017;18(6):619-628. PubMed PMID: 26648072
8. Jones JL, Sabaté J, Heskey C, et al. Macadamia nut effects on cardiometabolic risk factors: a randomised trial. Journal of nutritional science. 2023;12:e55. PubMed PMID: 37180485
9. Garg ML, Blake RJ, Wills RB. Macadamia nut consumption lowers plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic men. The Journal of nutrition. 2003;133(4):1060-3. PubMed PMID: 12672919
10. Griel AE, Cao Y, Bagshaw DD, et al. A macadamia nut-rich diet reduces total and LDL-cholesterol in mildly hypercholesterolemic men and women. The Journal of nutrition. 2008;138(4):761-7. PubMed PMID: 18356332
11. Pietraszek A, Gregersen S, Pedersen SB, et al. Acute effects of monounsaturated fat on postprandial lipemia and gene expression in first-degree relatives of subjects with type 2 diabetes. European journal of clinical nutrition. 2014;68(9):1022-8. PubMed PMID: 24824014
12. Lou X, Fan Z, Wei J, et al. Timing and Nutrient Type of Isocaloric Snacks Impacted Postprandial Glycemic and Insulinemic Responses of the Subsequent Meal in Healthy Subjects. Nutrients. 2024;16(4):535. PubMed PMID: 38398859
13. Maguire LS, O'Sullivan SM, Galvin K, et al. Fatty acid profile, tocopherol, squalene and phytosterol content of walnuts, almonds, peanuts, hazelnuts and the macadamia nut. International journal of food sciences and nutrition. 2004;55(3):171-8. PubMed PMID: 15223592
14. Chowdhury R, Warnakula S, Kunutsor S, et al. Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of internal medicine. 2014;160(6):398-406. PubMed PMID: 24723079
15. Lima EA, Silveira LS, Masi LN, et al. Macadamia oil supplementation attenuates inflammation and adipocyte hypertrophy in obese mice. Mediators of inflammation. 2014;2014:870634. PubMed PMID: 25332517
16. Barrena HC, Schiavon FP, Cararra MA, et al. Effect of linseed oil and macadamia oil on metabolic changes induced by high-fat diet in mice. Cell biochemistry and function. 2014;32(4):333-40. PubMed PMID: 24284975
17. Shuai X, Dai T, McClements DJ, et al. Hypolipidemic effects of macadamia oil are related to AMPK activation and oxidative stress relief: In vitro and in vivo studies. Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). 2023;168:112772. PubMed PMID: 37120222
18. Zhang M, Zhang Y, Li L, et al. Macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) Oil Prevents High-Fat Diet-Induced Lipid Accumulation and Oxidative Stress by Activating the AMPK/Nrf2 Pathway. Foods (Basel, Switzerland). 2024;13(22):3672. PubMed PMID: 39594087
19. Gao S, Guo Q, Qin C, et al. Sea Buckthorn Fruit Oil Extract Alleviates Insulin Resistance through the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Cells and Rats. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2017;65(7):1328-1336. PubMed PMID: 28134520

PubMed Topic Searches

1. Palmitoleic acid and insulin sensitivity
2. Palmitoleic acid, de novo lipogenesis and fatty liver
3. Trans-palmitoleic acid and diabetes
4. Macadamia randomised controlled trials
5. Palmitoleic acid as a lipokine
6. Sea buckthorn and palmitoleic acid

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