Apple Cider Vinegar

Table of Contents

1. What It Is: Acetic Acid and the “Mother”
2. Traditional and Historical Use
3. What Is Actually in a Tablespoon
4. After-Meal Blood Sugar and Insulin
5. Fasting Glucose, HbA1c and “Insulin Resistance”
6. Body Weight and Belly Fat: The Real Effect Sizes
7. Slower Stomach Emptying and Gastroparesis
8. How to Use It and Which Vinegar to Buy
9. Myths and Overclaims in the Popular Videos
10. Safety, Interactions and Who Should Avoid It
11. Key Research Papers
12. Connections
13. Featured Videos

What It Is: Acetic Acid and the “Mother”

The word vinegar comes from the old French for “sour wine,” and that is exactly what it is: a drink that has fermented past alcohol into acid. Apple cider vinegar goes through two fermentations. First, yeasts turn the natural sugars in pressed apple juice into alcohol, making hard cider. Then a second group of microbes, the acetic acid bacteria (the best known is Acetobacter), use oxygen to turn that alcohol into acetic acid. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s labelling guidance puts it in one line: cider vinegar is “the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of apples” (FDA CPG Sec. 525.825).

Acetic acid is what makes vinegar sour, sharp-smelling and self-preserving, and it is the ingredient researchers treat as the active one. Vinegars generally contain about 4 to 8 percent acetic acid. The FDA expects vinegar sold in the U.S. to carry at least 4 grams of acetic acid per 100 mL, notes that natural vinegars normally come out of fermentation above that, and requires a watered-down product to say so on the label. At 5% acidity, one tablespoon (15 mL) carries about 750 mg of acetic acid — exactly the lower dose used in the Japanese weight trial described below.

The “mother” is the cloudy, cobweb-like strand floating in unfiltered bottles. It is a loose mat of cellulose that acetic acid bacteria spin as they work, with some of those bacteria living in it — the traditional starter for the next batch of vinegar. Filtered, pasteurised cider vinegar has had the mother removed but keeps the same acid. The mother is harmless and appeals to people who prefer less-processed food, but be clear about the evidence: we found no human trial that tested the mother itself, and the studies on this page point to the acetic acid, not the sediment, as what does the work. And unlike kefir or sauerkraut, it is not eaten for live cultures: none of the trials on this page tested vinegar as a probiotic.

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Traditional and Historical Use

Vinegar is almost as old as fermented drinks themselves, because wine or cider left open to the air slowly sours. A 2006 review of vinegar’s medicinal history by Johnston and Gaas recounts the legend that a courtier in Babylonia around 5000 BC “discovered” wine from grape juice left standing, which led in turn to vinegar and its use as a food preservative. The same review notes that Hippocrates, around 420 BC, used vinegar to manage wounds, and that American medical practitioners from the late 18th century onward treated a long list of complaints with it — dropsy (fluid swelling), poison ivy, croup and stomach ache among them.

One historical use foreshadows today’s research. Before drugs to lower blood sugar were produced, the review says, vinegar “teas” were commonly drunk by people with diabetes to help manage the disease. Modern trials, described below, found that vinegar really does blunt the rise in blood sugar after a starchy meal — so the folk practice had a grain of truth, even though vinegar was never a treatment for diabetes itself.

Vinegar has also always been a food first: it preserves pickles and sharpens dressings, sauces and marinades. In Japan, as the authors of the best-known weight trial point out, vinegar is a staple seasoning (think sushi rice) and drinks containing vinegar are commonly consumed. The recent wave of popularity is different in kind — short videos promoting a daily glass as a metabolic fix — and the rest of this page tests those claims against the trials.

Evidence tier for the historical uses: traditional use only.

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What Is Actually in a Tablespoon

Nutritionally, apple cider vinegar is close to acidified water. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s FoodData Central lists cider vinegar, per 100 grams, at 21 calories, 0.93 g of carbohydrate (0.4 g of it sugar), 73 mg of potassium and 5 mg of sodium, with only traces of calcium, magnesium and iron — and zero for every vitamin it reports. A tablespoon weighs 14.9 g, so it provides roughly:

• about 3 calories and 0.1 g of carbohydrate;
• about 11 mg of potassium and under 1 mg of sodium;
• about 750 mg of acetic acid, if the bottle is 5% acidity.

Two popular claims fall at this point. The first is that cider vinegar is a meaningful source of potassium. At about 11 mg a tablespoon it is not; a serving of almost any fruit or vegetable carries many times more. (It does keep a trace of the apple: FoodData Central lists white distilled vinegar at just 2 mg of potassium per 100 g, against cider vinegar’s 73 mg.) The second is that it is rich in vitamins or “living nutrients.” The vitamin figures are all zero. Unfiltered vinegar does carry small amounts of apple-derived plant compounds (polyphenols) that vary from bottle to bottle, but no trial has tied the results below to them. What a tablespoon reliably delivers is acid.

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After-Meal Blood Sugar and Insulin

This is where the evidence is strongest, and it is also where the popular claims begin. The question the trials asked is simple: if you take vinegar with a carbohydrate meal, does blood sugar rise less afterwards?

What the trials found

• Johnston and colleagues, 2004 (Diabetes Care). In a brief research letter, vinegar taken with a high-carbohydrate meal improved insulin sensitivity to that meal in people with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes. This is the study most often behind the “insulin resistance” claims — but note what it measured: the body’s response to one meal, not a lasting change.
• Johnston and colleagues, 2010 (Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism). Four small randomised crossover trials (9–10 adults each; one of them in type 2 diabetes) found that just two teaspoons (about 10 g) of vinegar reduced the after-meal glucose rise, and worked best when taken with the meal rather than five hours before it. Taken with a meal of complex carbohydrates, vinegar cut the after-meal rise by about 20% compared with placebo. Tellingly, it did nothing when the “meal” was a plain glucose (dextrose) drink, and neutralised vinegar — sodium acetate — did nothing at all.
• Brighenti and colleagues, 1995 (European Journal of Clinical Nutrition). In five healthy volunteers, vinegar in a plain salad dressing (olive oil and vinegar on lettuce) eaten before white bread lowered the blood-sugar response by 31%. The same vinegar neutralised with sodium bicarbonate — baking soda — had no such effect. The authors concluded that the effect depends on acidity.
• Liatis and colleagues, 2010 (European Journal of Clinical Nutrition). In 16 people with type 2 diabetes, adding vinegar to a fast-digesting mashed-potato meal made the blood-sugar rise about 40% smaller, while adding it to a slower-digesting whole-grain bread meal made no difference.

How it probably works

Two explanations have human support. First, vinegar slows how quickly the stomach empties (see the gastroparesis section), so starch reaches the intestine more gradually. Second, the acid appears to act on starch digestion itself: vinegar helped with starchy meals but not with a glucose drink, which needs no digestion. Brighenti’s small ultrasound substudy found no difference in stomach emptying, so how much each mechanism contributes is still debated.

Evidence tier: randomised controlled trials in humans — but small, short, single-meal studies, most with fewer than 20 participants. The effect is real and reproducible; it is also modest, and it lasts for one meal.

The Liatis result carries a practical lesson. A slower-digesting whole-food meal already produces a gentler glucose curve, and vinegar adds little to it. Vinegar helps most where the meal is a fast starch — white bread, potatoes, white rice — which is also exactly where swapping to brown rice, whole grains, beans and vegetables helps most. If your concern is prediabetes or diabetes, the food on the plate matters more than the vinegar beside it.

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Fasting Glucose, HbA1c and “Insulin Resistance”

Blunting one meal’s glucose spike is not the same as reversing insulin resistance, which is a slow change in how muscle, liver and fat respond to insulin over months and years. To see whether vinegar touches that, you need trials lasting weeks or months that measure fasting glucose, HbA1c, fasting insulin and HOMA-IR (an index calculated from fasting glucose and insulin).

• A 2021 meta-analysis of apple cider vinegar trials (Hadi and colleagues; nine studies) found small improvements: fasting glucose fell by about 8 mg/dL, total cholesterol by about 6 mg/dL, and HbA1c by about 0.5 percentage points — though the HbA1c results varied enormously from trial to trial. It found no significant effect on fasting insulin or HOMA-IR, the measures closest to insulin resistance itself. In apparently healthy participants, fasting glucose even appeared to rise slightly.
• A 2021 meta-analysis of acetic acid trials (Valdes and colleagues; 16 randomised trials, 910 participants, 750 to 3,600 mg of acetic acid a day for about 8 weeks on average) found lower triglycerides and, in people with type 2 diabetes, lower fasting glucose — but no significant change in HbA1c. Most of the trials had an unclear or high risk of bias, and none measured how much acetate actually reached the blood.
• The 12-week Japanese trial (Kondo and colleagues, 2009, described in the next section) measured fasting glucose, insulin, HbA1c and HOMA-IR and found no significant differences between the vinegar and placebo groups on any of them, even as weight and triglycerides fell.

So the honest summary is this: in people who already have type 2 diabetes, daily vinegar may nudge fasting glucose down a little over a few months. Nothing in the trials shows that a daily glass “stops” or reverses insulin resistance. For the measures with much stronger evidence — movement, weight loss, sleep and a whole-food diet — see our Insulin Resistance page.

Evidence tier: meta-analyses of small randomised trials in humans, mostly short and of mixed quality.

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Body Weight and Belly Fat: The Real Effect Sizes

The Japanese 12-week trial (Kondo, 2009)

This is the trial behind most “vinegar melts belly fat” claims, and it is a genuinely well-designed one: randomised, double-blind and placebo-controlled, run by the research institute of a Japanese vinegar maker. It enrolled 175 Japanese adults with a BMI between 25 and 30 (Japan’s definition of obesity) and gave them a 500 mL drink every day for 12 weeks, split between after breakfast and after supper, containing 0, 15 or 30 mL of apple vinegar (0, 750 or 1,500 mg of acetic acid). The placebo drink contained lactate so it tasted sour too. 155 people completed the study, and diet diaries and pedometers showed no differences in food intake or activity between the groups.

The results, taken from the paper’s own tables:

• Body weight: placebo +0.4 kg; 15 mL a day −1.2 kg; 30 mL a day −1.9 kg over 12 weeks. The authors summarise it as a reduction of “1–2 kg” and about 0.4 to 0.7 BMI points.
• Waist: about 1.4 cm and 1.9 cm smaller in the two vinegar groups, while the placebo group’s waist barely moved.
• Visceral (belly) fat on CT scan: significantly reduced — the authors describe a decrease of more than 5 cm² from an average starting area of about 106 cm², that is, a few percent.
• Triglycerides: fell from 1.70 to 1.39 mmol/L (15 mL) and from 1.78 to 1.31 mmol/L (30 mL), with little change on placebo. Systolic blood pressure fell by about 4.5 mmHg in the 30 mL group.
• After stopping: four weeks after the drinks ended, the 15 mL group was back at its starting weight and the 30 mL group had regained most of what it had lost.

That is a real, statistically solid, dose-dependent effect — and a small one. One to two kilograms over three months is noticeable on a scale but far from the transformations promised in videos, and it lasted only as long as the vinegar did. Note also who was tested: mildly overweight adults who tolerated vinegar — anyone who got heartburn from vinegar was excluded before the trial began.

Newer trials and the 2025 meta-analysis

Since 2009 a handful of smaller trials, mostly from Iran, Pakistan, India and Tunisia, have tested 15 to 30 mL a day, some alongside calorie-restricted diets. In one Iranian trial of 44 overweight or obese adults, 30 mL a day plus a calorie-restricted diet for 12 weeks produced significantly more weight loss and better blood lipids than the same diet alone. A 2025 meta-analysis (Castagna and colleagues; 10 randomised trials, 789 participants) pooled these studies and found statistically significant reductions in body weight, BMI and waist circumference over up to 12 weeks, with no effect on the other body-composition measures and large inconsistency between trials.

There is an important caveat. One of those ten trials was a 2024 study from Lebanon that reported significant reductions in weight, BMI, waist and hip size, body fat, blood sugar, triglycerides and cholesterol at doses as small as 5 mL a day. On 23 September 2025 — four days after the meta-analysis was published, so through no fault of its reviewers — the journal retracted that trial, with the agreement of its authors, after its own review found that the analyses could not be replicated, that there were multiple errors, and that the data showed patterns inconsistent with genuine random allocation. The pooled figures therefore include results that no longer stand.

The earlier 2021 acetic-acid meta-analysis (Valdes and colleagues), which pooled 16 trials, found no significant effect on BMI or body fat. Put together, the best-controlled evidence supports a small weight effect, on the order of a kilogram or two over three months, that fades when you stop. For approaches with larger and more durable effects, see Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome.

Evidence tier: randomised controlled trials in humans, small and short; the most dramatic recent trial retracted.

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Slower Stomach Emptying and Gastroparesis

Studies in healthy people have shown that vinegar delays gastric emptying — the rate at which the stomach passes food on to the small intestine — which is one reason the after-meal glucose curve is flatter. For most people that is harmless. For people whose stomach already empties too slowly, it works in the wrong direction.

Gastroparesis (“stomach paralysis”) is a condition, often a complication of long-standing diabetes, in which the stomach empties too slowly and food sits there, causing fullness, nausea and vomiting and making blood sugar hard to predict. In a Swedish pilot study (Hlebowicz and colleagues, 2007), ten people with type 1 diabetes and diabetic gastroparesis had their stomach emptying measured by ultrasound after a rice-pudding meal — once after a week of plain water before breakfast, and once after two weeks of 30 mL of apple cider vinegar in water before breakfast, with vinegar also added to the test meal. With vinegar, the median emptying measure fell from 27% to 17%: stomachs that were already slow emptied more slowly still. The authors concluded that this “might be a disadvantage” for blood-sugar control.

Why does that matter? Mealtime insulin starts working on a schedule. If the meal stays in the stomach longer than expected, the insulin can arrive before the glucose does — a set-up for a low blood sugar followed by a late high. That is why people with gastroparesis, or with type 1 diabetes on insulin, should not start a daily vinegar habit without talking to their diabetes team.

Evidence tier: pilot crossover study in humans (10 patients). Small, but the direction matches the healthy-volunteer studies.

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How to Use It and Which Vinegar to Buy

Amounts in kitchen terms

• Trial doses: 2 teaspoons (about 10 mL) with a meal in the blood-sugar studies; 1 to 2 tablespoons (15–30 mL) a day in the longer trials. The trials do not show that more is better, and more acid means more risk to teeth, throat and stomach.
• Always dilute. A tablespoon goes in a large glass of water — the Japanese trial spread 15–30 mL through 500 mL of drink a day. Never take it as a neat “shot.”
• Timing: with the meal or just before it. The effect was strongest at mealtime and weaker when vinegar was taken five hours earlier.
• The easiest way is on your plate. In Brighenti’s trial the vinegar was simply a salad dressing of olive oil and vinegar eaten before bread. A vinaigrette with a meal built around brown rice, potatoes or bread, or a spoonful in a slaw, soup or marinade, delivers the same acid with no glass to sip.
• If you drink it, protect your teeth: use a straw, rinse your mouth with plain water afterwards, and wait a while before brushing, because acid-softened enamel is easier to scrub away.

Which vinegar to buy

Because acetic acid is the active ingredient, the choice matters less than the videos suggest. What to look for, as a category:

• The name on the label. Under FDA guidance, “cider vinegar” or “apple vinegar” means vinegar made by fermenting apple juice. A blend of distilled (spirit) vinegar and cider vinegar should be labelled as a blend, and vinegar made from dried apples, apple cores or peels should say so.
• The stated acidity. Look for the percentage on the label. A product diluted with water must say “diluted with water to __ percent acid strength,” and never below 4 percent. Knowing the percentage tells you how much acid a tablespoon actually carries.
• Unfiltered, “with the mother.” Fine if you like the flavour or prefer less-processed food. But filtered, pasteurised cider vinegar of the same acidity carries the same acetic acid, and no human trial has shown that the mother adds a benefit.
• Tablets, capsules and gummies are a different product. When U.S. researchers analysed eight apple cider vinegar tablet products after a report of oesophageal injury from one, they found wide variation in tablet size, acidity, acid content and label claims, and were left in doubt whether apple cider vinegar was actually an ingredient in the products they tested. None of the ten trials in the 2025 meta-analysis used gummies. If you want the effect that was studied, use the liquid, diluted, with food.

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Myths and Overclaims in the Popular Videos

• “One glass a day stops insulin resistance.” No trial shows this. Vinegar with a starchy meal lowers that meal’s glucose response by around a fifth. Over months, meta-analyses find small drops in fasting glucose in people with diabetes but no significant change in fasting insulin or HOMA-IR, and the Japanese 12-week trial found no change in any glucose or insulin measure.
• “It shrinks belly fat.” The best trial measured belly fat on CT scans and found a real but small reduction — a few percent of visceral fat, 1 to 2 cm off the waist and 1 to 2 kg of weight in 12 weeks — largely regained within four weeks of stopping. The most dramatic recent trial was retracted.
• “Make fat work for you” / “it switches on fat-burning genes.” The gene-level story — acetic acid acting through the cell’s energy sensor AMPK to cut fat production and raise fat burning — comes from experiments in rats, mice and liver cells in a dish. The authors of the Japanese trial themselves note that results in humans and animals “are not always consistent.” Evidence tier: animal and in vitro only.
• “Mix it with baking soda.” Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) is an alkali. Stirred into vinegar it fizzes because it is neutralising the acetic acid, turning it into sodium acetate, water and carbon dioxide. That removes the very thing that works: in Brighenti’s trial, vinegar neutralised with sodium bicarbonate lost its effect on blood sugar, and in Johnston’s trials sodium acetate did nothing. It also adds sodium — FoodData Central lists a teaspoon of baking soda (4.6 g) at about 1,260 mg, a little more than half a teaspoon of table salt carries. The mixture is often sold as “alkalising,” but healthy lungs and kidneys hold blood pH in a narrow range, and no trial shows the drink changes it.
• “Only raw vinegar with the mother works.” Untested. The active ingredient in the trials is the acid, which filtered vinegar has in the same amount.
• “It curbs your appetite.” Partly true, for an unappealing reason. A 2014 study in the International Journal of Obesity found that vinegar’s appetite-reducing effect came largely from nausea — strongest with the least palatable drink — and its authors concluded that promoting vinegar as an appetite suppressant “does not seem appropriate.”
• “It detoxes and cleanses.” No specific toxin is ever named, and no trial has measured one being removed. Your liver and kidneys do that job.

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Safety, Interactions and Who Should Avoid It

In the amounts used in trials — one or two tablespoons a day, diluted, with food — vinegar is generally well tolerated; the 2021 acetic acid meta-analysis described it that way. The documented harms come from undiluted use, tablets, very large amounts, or particular medical conditions.

Teeth: enamel erosion

Vinegar is acidic enough to dissolve tooth enamel, which does not grow back. A Dutch dental journal described a 15-year-old girl whose erosive tooth wear was traced to drinking a glass of apple cider vinegar every day to lose weight; the report noted that drinking vinegar for weight loss is a long-standing practice in some communities and among bodybuilders. Dilute it, take it with a meal rather than sipping through the day, use a straw, rinse with water afterwards and do not brush straight away. See Tooth Decay for how acid and enamel interact.

Throat and oesophagus

The U.S. tablet study above began with a report of oesophageal injury caused by an apple cider vinegar tablet, and undiluted vinegar is acidic enough to irritate the throat. If you have trouble swallowing pills, or have reflux, tablets are a poor choice. Remember too that the Japanese weight trial excluded anyone who got heartburn from vinegar, so its participants were people who tolerated it. If vinegar gives you heartburn, treat that as a signal to stop; see GERD.

Low potassium (hypokalaemia)

An Austrian case report describes a woman who had drunk about 250 mL of apple cider vinegar a day for six years — roughly a cup of straight vinegar daily, far beyond kitchen use — and developed low blood potassium, high levels of the hormone renin, and osteoporosis. It is a single case at an extreme dose, but low potassium is dangerous for the heart and muscles, and it underlies the medicine cautions below. See Hypokalemia (Low Potassium).

Medicine interactions

These cautions rest on how the drugs work, the potassium case report and the gastric-emptying study, rather than on trials of the combinations. They are worth taking seriously because the consequences can be serious:

• Diuretics (“water pills”), such as loop and thiazide diuretics, already lower potassium; large amounts of vinegar could add to that.
• Digoxin, a heart-rhythm and heart-failure medicine, becomes more toxic when potassium is low, so anything that might lower potassium deserves caution.
• Insulin and other glucose-lowering drugs such as sulfonylureas: vinegar lowers after-meal glucose and slows stomach emptying, which can change how a meal lines up with a dose. The risk is a low blood sugar, especially in type 1 diabetes or gastroparesis.

If you take any of these, keep vinegar to culinary amounts, or talk it through with your prescriber or pharmacist before drinking it daily.

Who should avoid it or take extra care

• People with gastroparesis — vinegar slows emptying further.
• People with type 1 diabetes or anyone on insulin, unless their diabetes team agrees.
• People with low potassium, or taking potassium-lowering diuretics or digoxin.
• People with reflux, swallowing problems or existing enamel erosion.
• Teenagers using it to lose weight — the tooth-erosion case above was a 15-year-old.

Evidence tier for the harms: case reports, a product analysis and a pilot study — thin as numbers go, but consistent with the chemistry of an acid.

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Key Research Papers

1. Johnston CS, Gaas CA (2006). Vinegar: medicinal uses and antiglycemic effect. MedGenMed: Medscape General Medicine. — PubMed PMID: 16926800
2. Johnston CS, Kim CM, Buller AJ (2004). Vinegar improves insulin sensitivity to a high-carbohydrate meal in subjects with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. — PubMed PMID: 14694010
3. Johnston CS, Steplewska I, Long CA, Harris LN, Ryals RH (2010). Examination of the antiglycemic properties of vinegar in healthy adults. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. — PubMed PMID: 20068289
4. Brighenti F, Castellani G, Benini L, Casiraghi MC, Leopardi E, Crovetti R, et al. (1995). Effect of neutralized and native vinegar on blood glucose and acetate responses to a mixed meal in healthy subjects. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 7796781
5. Liatis S, Grammatikou S, Poulia KA, Perrea D, Makrilakis K, Diakoumopoulou E, et al. (2010). Vinegar reduces postprandial hyperglycaemia in patients with type II diabetes when added to a high, but not to a low, glycaemic index meal. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. — PubMed PMID: 20502468
6. Kondo T, Kishi M, Fushimi T, Ugajin S, Kaga T (2009). Vinegar intake reduces body weight, body fat mass, and serum triglyceride levels in obese Japanese subjects. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. — PubMed PMID: 19661687
7. Hadi A, Pourmasoumi M, Najafgholizadeh A, Clark CCT, Esmaillzadeh A (2021). The effect of apple cider vinegar on lipid profiles and glycemic parameters: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. — PubMed PMID: 34187442
8. Valdes DS, So D, Gill PA, Kellow NJ (2021). Effect of Dietary Acetic Acid Supplementation on Plasma Glucose, Lipid Profiles, and Body Mass Index in Human Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. — PubMed PMID: 33436350
9. Castagna A, Ferro Y, Noto FR, Bruno R, Aragao Guimaraes A, Pujia C, et al. (2025). Effect of Apple Cider Vinegar Intake on Body Composition in Humans with Type 2 Diabetes and/or Overweight: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. — PubMed PMID: 41010525
10. [No authors listed] (2025). Retraction: Apple cider vinegar for weight management in lebanese adolescents and young adults with overweight and obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. BMJ Nutrition, Prevention & Health. — PubMed PMID: 41789013
11. Hlebowicz J, Darwiche G, Björgell O, Almér LO (2007). Effect of apple cider vinegar on delayed gastric emptying in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: a pilot study. BMC Gastroenterology. — PubMed PMID: 18093343
12. Gambon DL, Brand HS, Veerman EC (2012). Unhealthy weight loss. Erosion by apple cider vinegar [article in Dutch]. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Tandheelkunde. — PubMed PMID: 23373303
13. Hill LL, Woodruff LH, Foote JC, Barreto-Alcoba M (2005). Esophageal injury by apple cider vinegar tablets and subsequent evaluation of products. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. — PubMed PMID: 15983536
14. Lhotta K, Höfle G, Gasser R, Finkenstedt G (1998). Hypokalemia, hyperreninemia and osteoporosis in a patient ingesting large amounts of cider vinegar. Nephron. — PubMed PMID: 9736833

PubMed Topic Searches

1. PubMed: Vinegar and after-meal blood sugar
2. PubMed: Apple cider vinegar trials on body weight
3. PubMed: Vinegar and gastric emptying

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Connections

• All Food
• Fermented Foods
• Apples
• Kefir
• Insulin Resistance
• Type 2 Diabetes
• Obesity
• Metabolic Syndrome
• Gastroparesis
• Potassium
• Tooth Decay
• Hemoglobin A1C

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