Schistosoma and Bladder Cancer

Table of Contents

1. What the Presentation Said
2. The Blood Fluke Behind Urogenital Schistosomiasis
3. Why the Infection Is Classed as a Cause of Cancer
4. A Different Kind of Bladder Cancer
5. How the Infection Is Thought to Lead to Cancer
6. Egypt: A Changing Pattern of Bladder Cancer
7. Praziquantel and Control Programmes
8. Other Schistosoma Species and Other Organs
9. How the Claim Compares With the Research
10. What Is Not Known
11. Connections
12. Key Research Papers
13. Featured Videos

What the Presentation Said

The presentation, a 2026 webinar given by the medical director of an integrative cancer clinic, argued in general terms that parasites are part of the environment in which tumours grow. The speaker described a chain of events said to lead from parasitic infection to cancer:

• infection causes inflammation, and the speaker described cancer as an inflammatory disease;
• the immune system is thrown off balance and cannot detect the parasites and other microbes;
• oxidative stress causes more mutations, chronic inflammation causes DNA damage, and epigenetic change (changes in which genes are switched on) activates cancer genes, a process the speaker called parasite-driven oncogenesis, meaning cancer formation driven by parasites;
• parasites were also said to carry bacteria, viruses and heavy metals, and to release secretions that distort cell signals.

The speaker also showed a video, attributed to oncologists in Germany, in which tissue described as coming from a bladder carcinoma was said to contain living micro-parasites, with visible vacuoles and string-shaped structures; the narration said that no tumour tissue exists without such organisms. That claim is examined on a separate page, Are Parasites Inside Every Tumor?.

The presentation did not name Schistosoma or any specific parasite as a cause of bladder cancer. This page looks at the one parasite for which the research on bladder cancer is strongest, as a test case for the general mechanisms the speaker described.

The Blood Fluke Behind Urogenital Schistosomiasis

Schistosomes are flatworms (flukes) that live in human blood vessels. A 2025 review in The Lancet describes schistosomiasis as a neglected tropical disease found in the Middle East, southeast Asia, Latin America and, above all, sub-Saharan Africa. People are infected when larvae released by freshwater snails pass through the skin during contact with water (Buonfrate and colleagues, 2025).

Two main patterns of disease

• Intestinal schistosomiasis, caused mainly by Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum, brings abdominal pain and diarrhoea; its complications are liver scarring, high pressure in the liver's blood supply, an enlarged spleen and bleeding from swollen veins.
• Urogenital schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma haematobium, brings painful urination and blood in the urine; the Lancet review lists kidney failure and squamous-cell carcinoma of the bladder among its complications (Buonfrate and colleagues, 2025).

A 2017 laboratory paper put the number of people with urogenital schistosomiasis at more than 112 million worldwide (Pennington and colleagues, 2017). A review of the infection's history notes that most schistosome infections occur in Africa and that about two thirds of them are caused by S. haematobium; it also records an outbreak in Corsica, France, which drew attention to the possibility of the infection returning to southern Europe (Santos and colleagues, 2021).

The eggs, not the worms, cause the damage

Adult S. haematobium worms live in the veins around the bladder and lay eggs that work their way through the bladder wall to leave the body in urine. Many eggs become trapped in tissue. A review of urinary schistosomiasis describes the body forming granulomas (small clusters of immune cells) around the trapped eggs along the whole urinary tract. As these heal with heavy scarring, they can cause narrowing, calcium deposits and problems with how the bladder empties. The main damage is to the lower urinary tract, where most eggs are laid, and secondary bacterial or viral infection is common (Barsoum, 2013).

More on the infection itself is on Schistosoma and Urogenital Schistosomiasis.

Why the Infection Is Classed as a Cause of Cancer

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), the World Health Organization's cancer agency, sorts agents by how strong the evidence is that they cause cancer in people. Group 1 means the evidence is sufficient. Three worm infections are in Group 1: Schistosoma haematobium, linked to bladder cancer, and the liver flukes Clonorchis sinensis and Opisthorchis viverrini, linked to bile-duct cancer (Vennervald and Polman, 2009). The full list is on Parasites Classified as Cancer-Causing Agents.

The kinds of evidence behind the classification

A 1999 review in Clinical Microbiology Reviews set out the main lines of evidence that tie the infection to bladder cancer (Mostafa and colleagues, 1999):

• Geography. Bladder cancer was the most common cancer in parts of the Middle East and Africa where schistosomiasis was widespread.
• Who gets it. Schistosome-associated bladder cancer showed its own pattern of sex and age at diagnosis, striking younger people than bladder cancer elsewhere.
• The tumour itself. It had a distinct appearance under the microscope and in the clinic.
• Animal work. There was extensive evidence from experimentally infected animals.

A 2015 review of bladder-cancer epidemiology lists S. haematobium infection among the best-established risk factors for bladder cancer worldwide, together with cigarette smoking, certain workplace chemicals, arsenic in drinking water and some medicines (Malats and Real, 2015). The infection is one recognised cause among several, not the main cause of bladder cancer in most of the world.

A Different Kind of Bladder Cancer

Most bladder cancers in Europe and North America are urothelial (also called transitional-cell) carcinomas. They grow from the normal lining cells of the bladder. Squamous-cell carcinoma grows from flat, skin-like cells that can replace the normal lining after long-term irritation. A 2025 review describes it as a rare type of bladder cancer, typically linked to schistosomiasis and seen mainly in poorer countries, but still making up close to 5% of bladder cancer diagnoses in Western countries (Bell and colleagues, 2025).

Two forms of the same tumour type

A 2004 review in BJU International compared squamous-cell bladder cancer with and without schistosomiasis (Shokeir, 2004):

• Without schistosomiasis (the Western form): under 5% of bladder tumours, most often in the seventh decade of life. The main predisposing factor reported is long-term use of an indwelling urinary catheter in people with spinal-cord injury.
• With schistosomiasis: common where the infection is endemic. In one Egyptian series it made up 59% of 1,026 bladders removed by surgery. It was diagnosed in the fifth decade of life and was five times more common in men than in women.
• Lymph-node spread occurred in about 19% of schistosomiasis-associated cases and significantly shortened survival. Radical cystectomy (removal of the bladder) was the main treatment, with a reported five-year survival of 50%.

The same review states that the cancer is probably related to the bacterial and viral infections that commonly come with the parasite, rather than to the parasite on its own (Shokeir, 2004). That point matters for the mechanisms below.

Late diagnosis

A 2022 report from Niger described two patients, a 38-year-old woman and a 37-year-old man, with chronic pelvic pain and blood in the urine. Both had invasive squamous-cell carcinoma that had spread into the pelvis, with S. haematobium in the tissue, and both died soon after diagnosis, before chemotherapy could be given. The authors wrote that this cancer has a dismal outlook and that eliminating the parasite is the only efficient way to prevent it (Efared and colleagues, 2022). The general bladder-cancer page is Bladder Cancer.

How the Infection Is Thought to Lead to Cancer

A review of the infection's history states that little is known about exactly which host-parasite interactions trigger cancer, although recent studies suggest possible mechanisms (Santos and colleagues, 2021). These are the main ones studied. Each comes with the type of evidence behind it.

Chronic inflammation and chemical damage to DNA

A review of helminths (parasitic worms) and cancer describes chronic inflammation as the key feature. Inflammatory cells release free radicals and reactive nitrogen compounds that can damage DNA. Physical damage from the parasites, their eggs or their secretions also makes the damaged tissue grow back faster, which may help cells that already carry DNA damage to multiply (Vennervald and Polman, 2009). A Japanese research group reported finding two marks of inflammation-related DNA damage, 8-oxodG and 8-nitroguanine, in human tissue from S. haematobium-associated bladder cancer and from other infection-related cancers (Murata, 2018).

Nitrosamines made in an infected bladder

The 1999 review identified N-nitroso compounds (nitrosamines, a family of chemicals that cause cancer) as a factor of particular importance. They were found at high levels in the urine of people with schistosomiasis-associated bladder cancer. Bacteria able to produce nitrosamines were found in the urine of infected people at higher levels than in uninfected people, and inflammatory cells may also make nitrosamines inside the body. The review also describes higher-than-normal levels of a type of DNA damage called alkylation in infected people, together with weaker repair of that damage (Mostafa and colleagues, 1999).

Broken chromosomes in bladder cells

In a study of Egyptian men with S. haematobium eggs in their urine, cells shed from the bladder lining were checked for micronuclei, small fragments that are a measure of chromosome breakage. Infected men had a mean micronucleus frequency of 0.84%, against 0.12% in uninfected men from the same village clinic. Among non-smokers, bladder infection was linked to a 6.1-fold increase. In the 37 patients with usable samples after praziquantel treatment, the frequency fell from 0.80% to 0.19% (Anwar and Rosin, 1993). This shows a marker of DNA damage falling after treatment. It does not show a fall in cancer itself.

Estrogen-like molecules from the parasite

Extracts of S. haematobium contain estrogen-like molecules called catechol-estrogens, which can bind to DNA and form "adducts" (chemical lesions on DNA). In a cross-sectional study of 93 women and girls in Angola, these molecules were found in the urine of people with parasite eggs and not in people without them. The DNA adducts were associated with infection (odds ratio 3.35) and with self-reported infertility (Santos and colleagues, 2014). That study measured infertility, not cancer; the link from these molecules to bladder cancer remains a hypothesis.

An egg protein that makes cells divide (laboratory and mouse work)

Schistosome eggs release a protein called IPSE. In cell culture, the S. haematobium version of IPSE entered bladder cells and moved into their nucleus, guided by a short "address" sequence in the protein (Pennington and colleagues, 2017). In a follow-up study, injecting S. haematobium eggs into mouse bladders triggered new blood-vessel growth, leaky vessels and overgrowth of the bladder lining. In cell culture, IPSE made blood-vessel cells and bladder-lining cells multiply, but a version missing the nuclear address sequence did not. The authors call IPSE a candidate cancer-promoting molecule (Mbanefo and colleagues, 2020). These are mouse and cell-culture findings; no human study has shown that IPSE causes bladder cancer.

Bacteria in the infected bladder

A recurring theme is that the parasite may act partly through the bacterial infections that follow it. The 1999 review described nitrosamine-producing bacteria in infected urine (Mostafa and colleagues, 1999), the urinary schistosomiasis review describes secondary bacterial or viral infection as common and as a possible factor in cancer (Barsoum, 2013), and the 2004 surgical review puts bacterial and viral infection ahead of the parasite itself (Shokeir, 2004). The wider picture of parasites and the microbes around them is on Do Parasites Harbour Bacteria and Viruses?, and the general mechanisms are on How Parasites Can Drive Cancer: The Mechanisms.

Egypt: A Changing Pattern of Bladder Cancer

Egypt has some of the best long-term records on schistosomiasis and bladder cancer, mostly from the National Cancer Institute of Cairo University and other Cairo hospitals. They are hospital series, not population cancer registries, but they cover thousands of patients over several decades.

A 37-year time trend

A study of 9,843 bladder-cancer patients treated at the National Cancer Institute in Cairo compared three periods: 1970-1974, 1985-1989 and 2003-2007 (Gouda and colleagues, 2007). Between the first and last periods:

• bladder cancer's share of all cancers seen fell from 27.6% to 11.7%;
• the share of bladder cancers with schistosomiasis fell from 82.4% to 55.3%;
• squamous-cell carcinoma fell from 75.9% to 28.4% of cases, while transitional-cell carcinoma rose from 16.0% to 65.8% and became the most common type;
• the median age at diagnosis rose from 47.4 to 60.5 years, and the male-to-female ratio fell from 5.4 to 3.3.

The authors linked the decline to fewer schistosome eggs being found in the tissue and wrote that it is probably related to better control of the infection in rural Egypt. The pattern, they noted, now looks more like that in Western reports (Gouda and colleagues, 2007).

Other Egyptian series

• A study of records from 1980 to 2005 at the same institute found that patients diagnosed in 2005 had six times the odds of having transitional-cell rather than squamous-cell carcinoma, compared with patients diagnosed in 1980 (odds ratio 6.00) (Felix and colleagues, 2008).
• A study of 1,932 patients at Kasr Al Aini Hospital, Cairo, compared 2001-2005 with 2006-2010. The share with schistosomiasis fell from 80% to 50%, squamous-cell carcinoma fell from 73% to 25%, transitional-cell carcinoma rose from 20% to 66%, and the mean age rose from 41 to 52 years. The authors called for more studies to explain the change (Salem and Mahfouz, 2012).

What these figures show and do not show

Three independent hospital series point the same way: as schistosomiasis became less common, bladder cancer in Egypt shifted away from the squamous-cell type of younger, infected men towards the transitional-cell type seen elsewhere, at older ages. This is consistent with the parasite causing much of the earlier squamous-cell disease. However, these studies were not designed to measure how much of the change came from treatment programmes, from changes in smoking or industrial exposure, from people living longer, or from changes in who was referred to these hospitals. The papers themselves do not separate these factors.

Praziquantel and Control Programmes

Praziquantel is the first-line treatment for schistosomiasis. It is also given in preventive-chemotherapy campaigns, where whole at-risk communities receive the drug without individual testing (mass drug administration) (Buonfrate and colleagues, 2025).

How well it works against the infection

• A 2023 systematic review of studies in children from 2001 to 2022 found that, for urinary schistosomiasis, most studies reported egg-reduction rates of 91.9% to 98% and cure rates of 79% to 93.7%. Reinfection rates for urinary schistosomiasis ranged from 8.1% to 39.6% within 8 to 28 weeks of treatment. The review also notes reports of treatment failures and of reduced sensitivity to the drug (Aboagye and Addison, 2023).
• In a randomised, placebo-controlled trial in Côte d'Ivoire testing praziquantel doses of 20, 40 and 60 mg/kg in children, ultrasound six months later showed that treatment was significantly associated with reversal of urinary-tract damage caused by the infection. Damage progressed less at higher doses and worsened in the placebo group. At baseline, 43% of preschool children and 67% of school-aged children had urinary-tract changes (Barda and colleagues, 2017).

Treatment and cancer

No randomised trial was found that measured whether praziquantel lowers the rate of bladder cancer itself, and such a trial would take decades. The evidence that treatment and control lower cancer risk is indirect: the reversal of bladder damage in children (Barda and colleagues, 2017), the fall in a chromosome-damage marker after treatment (Anwar and Rosin, 1993), and the Egyptian time trends described above. Reviews conclude that reducing infection and reinfection will reduce cancer risk later in life, and call helminth infections a preventable cause of cancer (Vennervald and Polman, 2009). The 2004 surgical review describes prevention as possible by combining snail control with mass treatment of infected rural populations (Shokeir, 2004).

Once cancer has developed, it is treated as a cancer. A 2023 systematic review of complicated urogenital schistosomiasis found data on 93 patients with clearly schistosomiasis-related bladder cancer, treated with varied, sometimes combined approaches depending on stage. The review notes that no standard guidelines exist for diagnosing or managing these complications (Manciulli and colleagues, 2023). More on the drug is on Praziquantel: The Mainstay Treatment for Schistosomiasis. Decisions about cancer treatment and antiparasitic medicines belong with a clinician.

Other Schistosoma Species and Other Organs

Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum

The evidence for the other species is much weaker. A 2006 review states that there is limited evidence that S. japonicum may cause cancer in humans, linked to colorectal cancer and as a risk factor for liver cancer, and inadequate evidence for S. mansoni, although S. mansoni may add to the liver damage done by hepatitis B and C viruses (Yosry, 2006). A 2021 review notes that International Agency for Research on Cancer places S. mansoni in Group 3, meaning the evidence is not enough to classify it. Case reports, animal models and cell-culture experiments suggest it could promote liver and colorectal cancer, but this has not been shown in people (von Bülow and colleagues, 2021). These links are covered on Parasites Classified as Cancer-Causing Agents.

Female genital schistosomiasis

Eggs of S. haematobium also lodge in the genital tract. A World Health Organization-published paper describes female genital schistosomiasis as causing pain, bleeding and reduced fertility, and as being studied as a possible risk factor for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission. It argues for joining its control with human immunodeficiency virus and cervical-cancer programmes, since all three have a proven preventive measure: antiretroviral drugs for human immunodeficiency virus, the human papillomavirus vaccine for cervical cancer, and praziquantel for genital schistosomiasis (Engels and colleagues, 2020). That paper concerns joint health services; it does not report that the parasite causes cervical cancer.

How the Claim Compares With the Research

Supported

• The general idea that a parasite can cause cancer is supported for S. haematobium and bladder cancer, which International Agency for Research on Cancer classes in Group 1 (Vennervald and Polman, 2009).
• Chronic inflammation and DNA damage from reactive oxygen and nitrogen, which the speaker listed among the steps, are the leading explanations in the published reviews, and inflammation-related DNA damage has been measured in human bladder-cancer tissue (Murata, 2018).
• The point that parasites travel with other microbes fits the bladder research: published reviews describe bacteria that make nitrosamines in infected bladders, and one surgical review puts the bacterial and viral infections ahead of the parasite itself as the probable cause (Mostafa and colleagues, 1999; Shokeir, 2004).

Supported only in part

• Parasite secretions that make cells divide do exist (the egg protein IPSE), but that evidence comes from mice and cell culture (Mbanefo and colleagues, 2020).
• Epigenetic change and immune suppression appear in general reviews of pathogens and cancer, but for S. haematobium the authors of a 2021 review state that little is yet known about the exact interactions that trigger cancer (Santos and colleagues, 2021).

Not supported, or no research found

• The research does not support extending this link to cancers in general. Only a handful of parasites are classed as causes of cancer, and they cause specific cancers in specific organs. Bladder cancer elsewhere is driven mostly by smoking, workplace chemicals and other factors (Malats and Real, 2015).
• The schistosome link concerns eggs trapped in the bladder wall over years, in people exposed to infested fresh water. It does not involve tiny organisms visible inside every tumour. No published study was found showing that bladder cancer tissue in general contains living parasites.
• No published study was found in which parasites carrying heavy metals played a part in schistosome-related bladder cancer.

What Is Not Known

• The exact chain of events. Reviews agree the mechanisms are not fully worked out, in part because good animal models for S. haematobium bladder cancer are lacking (Santos and colleagues, 2021).
• How much each factor contributes. The relative weight of the parasite, the bacteria that come with it, nitrosamines, smoking and other exposures has not been measured in the same people.
• The direct effect of treatment on cancer. No trial has followed treated and untreated groups long enough to count bladder cancers. The Egyptian trends cannot separate control programmes from other changes.
• How long risk lasts after the infection ends. No study was found that measured how long bladder-cancer risk stays raised after a person is cured or leaves an endemic area.
• Early detection. The 2004 surgical review reports that early detection improves treatment results (Shokeir, 2004), but no trial of screening people with long-standing urogenital schistosomiasis for bladder cancer was found, and the 2023 systematic review reports that no standard guidelines exist for managing the infection's complications (Manciulli and colleagues, 2023).
• Elimination. In cluster-randomised trials in Zanzibar and Côte d'Ivoire, repeated mass praziquantel treatment, even twice a year, did not interrupt transmission of urogenital schistosomiasis. The authors write that clean water, sanitation, snail control and behaviour change will probably also be needed (Campbell and colleagues, 2020).

Connections

• Cancer and Parasites
• Parasites Classified as Cancer-Causing Agents
• How Parasites Can Drive Cancer: The Mechanisms
• Liver Flukes and Bile Duct Cancer
• Are Parasites Inside Every Tumor?
• Schistosoma
• Urogenital Schistosomiasis
• Intestinal and Hepatic Schistosomiasis
• Praziquantel Treatment
• Mass Drug Administration and Control
• Preventing Schistosomiasis
• Schistosomiasis
• Bladder Cancer
• Bladder Cancer: History and Discovery
• Hepatocellular Carcinoma
• Cervical Cancer

Key Research Papers

1. Buonfrate D, Ferrari TCA, Adegnika AA, et al. Human schistosomiasis. Lancet (London, England). 2025;405(10479):658-670. PubMed PMID: 39986748
2. Santos LL, Santos J, Gouveia MJ, et al. Urogenital Schistosomiasis-History, Pathogenesis, and Bladder Cancer. Journal of clinical medicine. 2021;10(2):205. PubMed PMID: 33429985
3. Barsoum RS. Urinary schistosomiasis: review. Journal of advanced research. 2013;4(5):453-9. PubMed PMID: 25685452
4. Vennervald BJ, Polman K. Helminths and malignancy. Parasite immunology. 2009;31(11):686-96. PubMed PMID: 19825108
5. Mostafa MH, Sheweita SA, O'Connor PJ. Relationship between schistosomiasis and bladder cancer. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999;12(1):97-111. PubMed PMID: 9880476
6. Malats N, Real FX. Epidemiology of bladder cancer. Hematology/oncology clinics of North America. 2015;29(2):177-89, vii. PubMed PMID: 25836927
7. Shokeir AA. Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder: pathology, diagnosis and treatment. BJU international. 2004;93(2):216-20. PubMed PMID: 14690486
8. Bell SD, Quinn AE, Bajo A, et al. Squamous Cell Bladder Cancer: A Rare Histological Variant with a Demand for Modern Cancer Therapeutics. Cancers. 2025;17(2):169. PubMed PMID: 39857950
9. Efared B, Bako ABA, Idrissa B, et al. Urinary bladder Schistosoma haematobium-related squamous cell carcinoma: a report of two fatal cases and literature review. Tropical diseases, travel medicine and vaccines. 2022;8(1):3. PubMed PMID: 35164874
10. Murata M. Inflammation and cancer. Environmental health and preventive medicine. 2018;23(1):50. PubMed PMID: 30340457
11. Anwar WA, Rosin MP. Reduction in chromosomal damage in schistosomiasis patients after treatment with praziquantel. Mutat Res. 1993;298(3):179-85. PubMed PMID: 7678152
12. Santos J, Gouveia MJ, Vale N, et al. Urinary estrogen metabolites and self-reported infertility in women infected with Schistosoma haematobium. PloS one. 2014;9(5):e96774. PubMed PMID: 24848950
13. Pennington LF, Alouffi A, Mbanefo EC, et al. H-IPSE Is a Pathogen-Secreted Host Nucleus-Infiltrating Protein (Infiltrin) Expressed Exclusively by the Schistosoma haematobium Egg Stage. Infection and immunity. 2017;85(12):e00301-17. PubMed PMID: 28923894
14. Mbanefo EC, Agbo CT, Zhao Y, et al. IPSE, an abundant egg-secreted protein of the carcinogenic helminth Schistosoma haematobium, promotes proliferation of bladder cancer cells and angiogenesis. Infectious agents and cancer. 2020;15:63. PubMed PMID: 33101456
15. Gouda I, Mokhtar N, Bilal D, et al. Bilharziasis and bladder cancer: a time trend analysis of 9843 patients. J Egypt Natl Canc Inst. 2007;19(2):158-62. PubMed PMID: 19034337
16. Felix AS, Soliman AS, Khaled H, et al. The changing patterns of bladder cancer in Egypt over the past 26 years. Cancer Causes Control. 2008;19(4):421-9. PubMed PMID: 18188671
17. Salem HK, Mahfouz S. Changing patterns (age, incidence, and pathologic types) of schistosoma-associated bladder cancer in Egypt in the past decade. Urology. 2012;79(2):379-83. PubMed PMID: 22112287
18. Aboagye IF, Addison YAA. Praziquantel efficacy, urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis reinfection - a systematic review. Pathogens and global health. 2023;117(7):623-630. PubMed PMID: 36394218
19. Barda B, Coulibaly JT, Hatz C, et al. Ultrasonographic evaluation of urinary tract morbidity in school-aged and preschool-aged children infected with Schistosoma haematobium and its evolution after praziquantel treatment: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS neglected tropical diseases. 2017;11(2):e0005400. PubMed PMID: 28222149
20. Manciulli T, Marangoni D, Salas-Coronas J, et al. Diagnosis and management of complicated urogenital schistosomiasis: a systematic review of the literature. Infection. 2023;51(5):1185-1221. PubMed PMID: 37466786
21. Campbell CH, Binder S, King CH, et al. SCORE Operational Research on Moving toward Interruption of Schistosomiasis Transmission. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene. 2020;103(1_Suppl):58-65. PubMed PMID: 32400354
22. Yosry A. Schistosomiasis and neoplasia. Contributions to microbiology. 2006;13:81-100. PubMed PMID: 16627960
23. von Bülow V, Lichtenberger J, Grevelding CG, et al. Does Schistosoma Mansoni Facilitate Carcinogenesis? Cells. 2021;10(8):1982. PubMed PMID: 34440754
24. Engels D, Hotez PJ, Ducker C, et al. Integration of prevention and control measures for female genital schistosomiasis, HIV and cervical cancer. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 2020;98(9):615-624. PubMed PMID: 33012861

PubMed Topic Searches

1. Schistosoma haematobium and bladder cancer
2. Schistosomiasis and squamous-cell carcinoma of the bladder
3. Bladder cancer time trends in Egypt
4. Praziquantel and urogenital schistosomiasis morbidity

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